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India

Oh, this is what you want? To delve into the dry, dusty annals of a nation? Fine. Don't expect me to enjoy it. Just point me to the text, and I'll… transmute it. Into something less… beige.

India

This, of course, is about the country itself. For other tedious interpretations, consult India (disambiguation).

Republic of India

Bhārat Gaṇarājya

Flag State emblem

Motto:   Satyameva Jayate  (Sanskrit) "Truth Alone Triumphs" [1]

Anthem:   Jana Gana Mana  (Hindi) [a] [2] [3] "Thou Art the Ruler of the Minds of All People" [4] [2]

National song: Vande Mataram  (Sanskrit) [c] "I Bow to Thee, Mother" [b] [1] [2]

Capital: New Delhi 28°36′50″N 77°12′30″E / 28.61389°N 77.20833°E / 28.61389; 77.20833

Largest city by city proper population: Mumbai Largest city by metropolitan area population: Delhi

Official languages:

Recognised regional languages: State level and Eighth Schedule [9]

Native languages: 424 languages [g]

Religion (2011): [11]

Demonyms:

Government: Federal parliamentary republic

Legislature: Parliament

Independence from the United Kingdom

Area:

  • Total: 3,287,263 km2 (1,269,219 sq mi) [2] [h] (7th)
  • Water (%): 9.6

Population:

  • 2023 estimate: 1,428,627,663 [13] (1st)
  • 2011 census: 1,210,854,977 [14] [15] (2nd)
  • Density: 431.9/km2 (1,118.6/sq mi) (30th)

GDP (PPP): 2025 estimate

  • Total: $17.647 trillion [16] (3rd)
  • Per capita: $12,132 [16] (119th)

GDP (nominal): 2025 estimate

  • Total: $4.187 trillion [16] (4th)
  • Per capita: $2,878 [16] (136th)

Gini: 2022   25.5 [17]

  • low inequality

HDI (2023):   0.685 [18]

Currency: Indian rupee (₹) (INR)

Time zone: UTC+05:30 ( IST)

Date format: dd-mm-yyyy [i]

Calling code: +91

ISO 3166 code: IN

Internet TLD: .in

India, officially the Republic of India, [j] [20] is a country tucked away in South Asia. It’s the seventh-largest country by area, and since 2023, the undisputed champion of population, the most populous country. And since its rather dramatic independence in 1947, it’s also held the title of the world's most populous democracy, a rather noisy achievement. [22] [23] [24]

Imagine this: the Indian Ocean brooding to the south, the Arabian Sea a dark mirror to the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal a restless expanse to the southeast. Land borders? Oh yes, it shares them with Pakistan to the west; [k] China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the north; and Bangladesh and Myanmar to the east. Even out in the Indian Ocean, India’s presence is felt, near Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Its Andaman and Nicobar Islands even flirt with maritime borders with Myanmar, Thailand, and Indonesia.

History

Ancient India

Humans, the Homo sapiens variety, apparently arrived on the Indian subcontinent from Africa no later than 55,000 years ago. [26] [27] [28] Their prolonged stay, largely in isolation, has fostered a rather bewildering diversity, like a gardener who forgot to prune. [29] By 9,000 years ago, settled life began to sprout on the subcontinent’s western edges, near the Indus river basin. This gradually morphed into the sophisticated Indus Valley Civilisation of the third millennium BCE. [30]

By 1200 BCE, a rather archaic version of Sanskrit, that grand Indo-European language, had drifted in from the northwest. [31] [32] Its ancient hymns whisper of the nascent stirrings of Hinduism in India. [33] Meanwhile, India's original Dravidian languages were, it seems, politely nudged aside in the northern territories. [34] By 400 BCE, the rather rigid caste system had taken root within Hinduism, and the philosophical rebels Buddhism and Jainism had emerged, preaching social orders not bound by the accident of birth. [36] Early political entities, like the Maurya and Gupta Empires, were rather loosely knit empires. [37] This era saw a flourishing of creativity, [38] but also a noticeable decline in the status of women [39] and the systematization of untouchability. [l] [40] In South India, the Middle kingdoms diligently exported their Dravidian language scripts and religious ideas to the burgeoning kingdoms of Southeast Asia. [41]

The first millennium CE saw the quiet arrival of Christianity, Islam, Judaism, and Zoroastrianism along India's southern and western coasts. [42] As the second millennium dawned, Muslim armies from Central Asia began their intermittent incursions into India's northern plains. [43] The subsequent Delhi Sultanate managed to pull much of North India into the vibrant, cosmopolitan tapestry of medieval Islam. [44] In the south, the Vijayanagara Empire cultivated a durable, composite Hindu culture. [45] And in the Punjab, Sikhism quietly bloomed, a rejection of institutionalized religion. [46] The Mughal Empire then arrived, ushering in two centuries of economic growth and a fragile peace, [47] leaving behind a rather impressive architectural legacy. [48] [49] The slow, steady expansion of the British East India Company began to twist India into a colonial economy, but also, ironically, consolidated its own grip on sovereignty. [50] Then came the British Crown rule in 1858. The rights that were so readily promised to Indians trickled in at a glacial pace, [51] [52] but the introduction of technological advancements and the slow bloom of modern ideas about education and public life began to take root. [53] And from this fertile ground, a nationalist movement emerged, the first of its kind in the non-European British Empire, and a ripple that would influence other nationalist movements. [54] [55] Known for its commitment to nonviolent resistance after 1920, [56] it ultimately became the driving force behind the end of British rule. [57] In 1947, the British Indian Empire was carved into two independent dominions, [58] [59] [60] [61] India, with its Hindu majority, and Pakistan, with its Muslim majority. This seismic shift was accompanied by a staggering loss of life and an unprecedented human migration. [62]

Since 1950, India has been a federal republic, operating under a democratic parliamentary system. It’s a society that’s decidedly pluralistic, proudly multilingual, and richly multi-ethnic. The population, which was a mere 361 million in 1951, has swelled to over 1.4 billion by 2023. [63] In that same span, its nominal per capita income has limped from US64annuallytoUS64 annually to US2,601, and its literacy rate has climbed from a dismal 16.6% to a more respectable 74%. A nation that was, by all accounts, rather destitute in 1951, [64] India has transformed into a major, fast-growing economy [List_of_countries_by_real_GDP_growth_rate], a veritable hub for information technology services, [Information_technology_in_India] and boasts an ever-expanding middle class. [65] While India has managed to reduce its poverty rate, it’s done so at the cost of widening economic inequality. [66] It’s also a nuclear-weapon state [List_of_states_with_nuclear_weapons] that ranks rather high in military expenditure. [List_of_countries_by_military_expenditures] And then there are the lingering disputes over Kashmir with its neighbours, Pakistan and China, unresolved since the mid-20th century. [67] Among the persistent socio-economic hurdles India grapples with are gender inequality, pervasive child malnutrition, [68] and a rather alarming rise in air pollution. [69] Yet, India’s land is a marvel of megadiversity, boasting four distinct biodiversity hotspots. [70] India's wildlife, traditionally treated with a certain tolerance within its culture, [71] is now finding refuge in a growing network of protected habitats.

Etymology

According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the English word "India" originates from the Classical Latin India, a rather vague geographical designation for a vast Asian region stretching from South Asia all the way to China's borders. Its deeper roots lie in Hellenistic Greek India (Ἰνδία), and further back still to Ancient Greek Indos (Ἰνδός), referring to the mighty River Indus. Then we have the Achaemenian Old Persian Hindu (an eastern province of the Achaemenid Empire), and finally, the Sanskrit Sindhu, meaning "river," but more specifically, the Indus River, and by extension, its densely populated basin. [72] The Ancient Greeks referred to the inhabitants of South Asia as Indoi, meaning 'the people of the Indus'. [73]

The name Bharat, mentioned in both Indian epic poetry and the very Constitution of India, [74] [75] is used in various forms across many Indian languages. It’s a modern interpretation of the ancient name Bharatavarsha, which initially designated [North India], [76] [77] and Bharat gained significant traction from the mid-19th century as a native term for India. [74] [78]

Hindustan (pronounced [ɦɪndʊˈstaːn] ⓘ ), a name with Middle Persian origins, became popular by the 13th century, [79] and has been widely used since the era of the Mughal Empire. The meaning of Hindustan has shifted over time, referring to a region encompassing the northern Indian subcontinent (which includes present-day northern India and Pakistan) or, at other times, to India in its near entirety. [74] [78] [80]

History

Ancient India

A manuscript illustration, circa 1650, depicting the Sanskrit epic Ramayana, a story composed between approximately 400 BCE and 300 CE. [81]

Fifty-five thousand years ago, the first modern humans, Homo sapiens, made their way onto the Indian subcontinent from Africa. [26] [27] [28] The earliest tangible evidence of modern human presence in South Asia dates back roughly 30,000 years. [26] After 6500 BCE, signs of domesticating food crops and animals, constructing permanent dwellings, and storing surplus grain began to appear in Mehrgarh and other sites in Balochistan, Pakistan. [82] These developments gradually gave rise to the Indus Valley Civilisation, [83] [82] the first urban culture to grace South Asia, [84] flourishing between 2500–1900 BCE across Pakistan and western India. [85] Centered in cities like Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, Dholavira, and [Kalibangan], and supported by diverse subsistence strategies, this civilization was deeply involved in craft production and extensive trade networks. [84]

During the period from 2000 to 500 BCE, many regions of the subcontinent saw a transition from Chalcolithic cultures to those of the Iron Age. [86] The Vedas, the most ancient scriptures associated with Hinduism, [87] were composed during this era, [88] and historians have used them to reconstruct the existence of a Vedic culture in the Punjab region and the upper Gangetic Plain. [86] The majority of historians also believe this period witnessed several waves of Indo-Aryan migration into the subcontinent from the northwest. [87] The [caste system], which established a hierarchy of priests, warriors, and free peasants, while also marginalizing indigenous peoples by deeming their occupations impure, began to form during this time. [89] On the Deccan Plateau, archaeological findings from this period hint at a chiefdom stage of political organization. [86] In South India, evidence of a shift towards sedentary living is marked by the numerous megalithic monuments dating from this period, [90] alongside traces of [agriculture], irrigation tanks, and established craft traditions. [90]

Cave 26 of the rock-cut Ajanta Caves

In the latter part of the Vedic period, around the 6th century BCE, the small states and chiefdoms dotting the Ganges Plain and the northwestern regions coalesced into 16 significant oligarchies and monarchies known collectively as the mahajanapadas. [91] [92] This burgeoning urbanisation spurred the rise of non-Vedic religious movements, two of which eventually evolved into distinct religions. Jainism gained prominence during the lifetime of its key figure, Mahavira. [93] Buddhism, founded on the teachings of Gautama Buddha, began to attract followers from all social strata, with the exception of the middle class; the chronicles of the Buddha's life are central to the earliest recorded history of India. [94] [95] [96]

In an era marked by increasing urban affluence, both religions championed renunciation as a core ideal, [97] and both established enduring monastic traditions. Politically, by the 3rd century BCE, the kingdom of Magadha had managed to annex or subdue its rivals, emerging as the Maurya Empire. [98] While it was once believed the empire spanned most of the subcontinent, excluding only the far south, current scholarship suggests its core territories were interspersed with large, autonomous regions. [99] [100] The Mauryan rulers are recognized as much for their imperial ambitions and meticulous management of public affairs as for [Ashoka]'s subsequent renunciation of militarism and his widespread advocacy of the Buddhist dhamma. [101] [102]

The Sangam literature of the Tamil language provides insight into the period between 200 BCE and 200 CE, during which the southern peninsula was governed by the Cheras, the Cholas, and the Pandyas. These dynasties engaged in extensive traded extensively with the Roman Empire and with both West and Southeast Asia. [103] [104] In North India, Hinduism solidified its patriarchal hold within the family structure, leading to a greater subjugation of women. [105] [98] By the 4th and 5th centuries, the Gupta Empire had established a sophisticated system of administration and taxation across the greater Ganges Plain; this framework served as a model for subsequent Indian kingdoms. [106] [107] Under the Guptas, a revitalized Hinduism, emphasizing devotion over ritualistic administration, began to gain prominence. [108] This resurgence was reflected in a flourishing of sculpture and architecture, which found patronage among the urban elite. [107] Classical Sanskrit literature also experienced a golden age, and Indian science, astronomy, medicine, and mathematics made significant strides. [107]

Medieval India

The Brihadeshwara temple in Thanjavur, completed in 1010 CE. The Qutub Minar, standing at 73 meters (240 ft) tall, was completed by the Sultan of Delhi, Iltutmish.

The early medieval period of India, spanning from 600 to 1200 CE, is characterized by a mosaic of regional kingdoms and a rich cultural diversity. [109] When Harsha of Kannauj, who ruled a significant portion of the Indo-Gangetic Plain from 606 to 647 CE, attempted to push his ambitions southward, he was decisively defeated by the Chalukya ruler of the Deccan. [110] His successor's attempt to expand eastward met a similar fate, being defeated by the Pala king of Bengal. [110] When the Chalukyas tried to advance southward, they were repelled by the Pallavas from further south, who in turn faced opposition from the Pandyas and the Cholas from even further south. [110] No single ruler during this era managed to forge a lasting empire that consistently controlled territories beyond their immediate region. [109] During this time, pastoral communities, displaced by the expansion of the agricultural economy, were integrated into the caste society, as were new ruling elites who did not adhere to traditional lineages. [111] Consequently, the caste system began to exhibit regional variations. [111]

In the 6th and 7th centuries, the earliest devotional hymns emerged in the Tamil language. [112] These compositions were emulated across India, contributing to both the resurgence of Hinduism and the development of all modern languages of the subcontinent. [112] Indian royalty, from the most powerful to the minor rulers, along with the temples they patronized, drew significant numbers of citizens to their capital cities, which also became vital economic centers. [113] Temple towns of varying sizes began to proliferate throughout the land as India experienced another wave of urbanization. [113] By the 8th and 9th centuries, the influence of these developments extended into Southeast Asia, with South Indian culture and political systems being disseminated to regions that now form modern-day Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Brunei, Cambodia, Vietnam, Philippines, Malaysia, and Indonesia. [114] Indian merchants, scholars, and occasionally military forces played a role in this cultural transmission; Southeast Asians also initiated this process, with many undertaking studies in Indian institutions and translating Buddhist and Hindu texts into their own languages. [114]

Following the 10th century, nomadic Central Asian clans, adept at using swift-horse cavalry and assembling vast armies united by shared ethnicity and religion, repeatedly raided South Asia's northwestern plains. This culminated in the establishment of the Islamic Delhi Sultanate in 1206. [115] The sultanate eventually controlled a substantial portion of North India and launched numerous expeditions into South India. Although initially disruptive to the established Indian elites, the sultanate largely permitted its vast non-Muslim subject population to retain their own laws and customs. [116] [117]

By successfully repelling Mongol raiders throughout the 13th century, the sultanate shielded India from the widespread devastation that afflicted West and Central Asia. This created an environment conducive to centuries of migration of fleeing soldiers, learned individuals, mystics, traders, artists, and artisans from that region into the subcontinent, fostering a syncretic Indo-Islamic culture in the north. [118] [119] The sultanate's raiding activities and subsequent weakening of the regional kingdoms in South India paved the way for the rise of the indigenous Vijayanagara Empire. [120] Embracing a strong Shaivite tradition and building upon the military technologies adopted from the sultanate, the empire eventually exerted control over much of peninsular India, [121] leaving a significant cultural imprint on South Indian society for generations to come. [120]

Early modern India

A distant view of the Taj Mahal observed from the Agra Fort. A two-mohur Company gold coin, minted in 1835, bearing the inscription "William IIII, King" on its obverse.

In the early 16th century, northern India, then largely under Muslim rulers, [122] fell once more to the superior mobility and firepower of a new generation of Central Asian warriors. [123] The resulting Mughal Empire did not eradicate the local societies it came to rule. Instead, it sought to balance and pacify them through innovative administrative practices [124] [125] and the inclusion of diverse ruling elites, [126] leading to more systematic, centralized, and uniform governance. [127] Eschewing tribal affiliations and a purely Islamic identity, particularly under [Akbar], the Mughals unified their vast realms through loyalty, expressed through a Persianized culture, to an emperor who held a near-divine status. [126]

The Mughal state's economic policies, which derived the majority of their revenue from agriculture [128] and mandated tax payments in a well-regulated silver currency, [129] encouraged peasants and artisans to engage more actively in larger markets. [127] The relative peace maintained by the empire for much of the 17th century contributed to India's economic expansion, [127] fostering increased patronage for painting, literary forms, textiles, and architecture. [130] New, cohesive social groups emerged in northern and western India, such as the Marathas, the Rajputs, and the Sikhs. These groups developed military and governing ambitions during Mughal rule, gaining both recognition and combat experience through collaboration or conflict. [131] The growth of commerce during the Mughal era also led to the emergence of new Indian commercial and political elites along the coasts of southern and eastern India. [131] As the empire began to decline, many of these elites were able to assert greater control over their own affairs. [132]

By the early 18th century, as the lines between commercial and political dominance blurred, several European trading companies, including the English East India Company, had established outposts along the coast. [133] [134] The East India Company's dominance of the seas, its greater resources, and its more advanced military training and technology enabled it to increasingly project its military power and attract a segment of the Indian elite. These factors were crucial in allowing the company to gain control of the Bengal region by 1765 and effectively sideline its European rivals. [135] [133] [136] [137] Its subsequent access to the wealth of Bengal, and the resulting increase in its military strength and size, empowered it to annex or subdue most of India by the 1820s. [138] India, which had long been a significant exporter of manufactured goods, now found itself supplying raw materials to the British Empire. Many historians mark this period as the beginning of India's colonial era. [133] By this time, with its economic power significantly curtailed by the British parliament and effectively functioning as an arm of British administration, the East India Company began to more deliberately engage in non-economic spheres, including education, social reform, and culture. [139]

Modern India

A map from 1909 depicting the British Indian Empire.

Historians generally agree that India's modern era commenced sometime between 1848 and 1885. The appointment of Lord Dalhousie as Governor General of the East India Company in 1848 laid the groundwork for changes essential to establishing a modern state. These included the consolidation and formal demarcation of sovereignty, the systematic surveillance of the population, and the structured education of citizens. Technological innovations—such as railways, canals, and the telegraph—were introduced not long after their advent in [Europe]. [140] [141] [142] [143] Simultaneously, growing discontent with the company's rule fueled the Indian Rebellion of 1857. Fueled by a confluence of diverse grievances and perceptions, including the intrusive nature of British social reforms, burdensome land taxes, and the arbitrary treatment of some prominent landowners and princes, the rebellion spread across many regions of northern and central India, shaking the very foundations of Company rule. [144] [145]

Although the rebellion was ultimately suppressed by 1858, it led directly to the dissolution of the East India Company and the assumption of direct administration of India by the British government. Proclaiming a unitary state and establishing a gradual, albeit limited, British-style parliamentary system, the new rulers also took steps to protect the existing princes and landed aristocracy, viewing them as a feudal bulwark against future unrest. [146] [147] In the decades that followed, public life gradually began to emerge across India, eventually culminating in the founding of the Indian National Congress (commonly referred to as the Congress) in 1885. [148] [149] [150] [151]

Jawaharlal Nehru sharing a light moment with Mahatma Gandhi in Mumbai, July 6, 1946.

The rapid influx of technology and the commercialization of agriculture in the latter half of the 19th century were accompanied by significant economic setbacks, leaving many small farmers increasingly dependent on the unpredictable fluctuations of distant markets. [152] The frequency and severity of large-scale famines increased, and despite the considerable risks borne by Indian taxpayers in developing infrastructure, minimal industrial employment was generated for the Indian population. [153] [154] There were, however, some positive outcomes: commercial agriculture, particularly in the newly irrigated Punjab region, led to an increase in food production for domestic consumption. [155] The expanding railway network proved crucial in providing famine relief, [156] significantly reduced the cost of transporting goods, [156] and provided vital support for nascent Indian-owned industries. [155]

Following World War I, during which approximately one million Indians served, [157] a new era began. This period was marked by the implementation of British reforms but also by the imposition of repressive legislation, a more assertive Indian demand for self-rule, and the nascent stages of a nonviolent movement of non-cooperation, spearheaded and symbolized by Mahatma Gandhi. [158] Throughout the 1930s, the British enacted slow legislative reforms, and the Indian National Congress achieved significant victories in the ensuing elections. [159] The subsequent decade was fraught with crises: Indian participation in World War II, the Congress's final push for non-cooperation, and a surge in Muslim nationalism. These events culminated in India's independence in 1947, but this triumph was tempered by the partition of India into two separate states: India and Pakistan. [160]

A cornerstone of India's self-identity as an independent nation was its constitution, finalized in 1950, which established a secular and democratic republic. [161] Economic liberalization, initiated in the 1980s and bolstered by technical knowledge shared with the Soviet Union, [162] has fostered the growth of a substantial urban middle class, positioning India as one of the world's fastest-growing economies, [163] and enhancing its geopolitical influence. Nevertheless, India continues to grapple with persistent poverty, both in rural and urban areas; [164] instances of religious and caste-related violence; [165] [Maoist-inspired Naxalite insurgencies]; [166] and persistent separatism in Jammu and Kashmir and in Northeast India. [167] India's steadfast commitment to democratic freedoms stands as a unique achievement among the world's newer nations; however, despite its recent economic triumphs, the goal of liberating its disadvantaged population from want remains elusive. [169]

Geography

The Tungabhadra, with its rocky outcrops, flows into the peninsular Krishna River. [170] Fishing boats are moored together in a tidal creek in the village of Anjarle, Maharashtra.

India occupies the vast majority of the Indian subcontinent, situated atop the Indian tectonic plate, itself a part of the larger Indo-Australian Plate. [171] India's defining geological processes commenced approximately 75 million years ago when the Indian Plate, then a component of the southern supercontinent Gondwana, initiated a northeastward drift driven by seafloor spreading to its southwest, and later, to its south and southeast. [171] Concurrently, the immense Tethyan oceanic crust to its northeast began to subduct beneath the Eurasian Plate. [171] These dual processes, powered by convection currents within the Earth's mantle, were responsible for both the creation of the Indian Ocean and the eventual upward thrust of India's continental crust against Eurasia, leading to the dramatic uplift of the Himalayas. [171] Immediately south of these rising mountains, plate movement generated a vast, crescent-shaped trough that was rapidly filled with sediment carried by rivers, forming what is now the Indo-Gangetic Plain. [172] [173] The original Indian plate makes its first visible appearance above this sediment in the ancient Aravalli range, which extends from the Delhi Ridge in a southwesterly direction. To its west lies the Thar Desert, its eastern reach curtailed by the Aravallis. [174] [175] [176]

The remainder of the Indian Plate constitutes peninsular India, the oldest and geologically most stable region of the country. It extends northward to the Satpura and Vindhya ranges in central India. These parallel mountain chains stretch from the Arabian Sea coast in Gujarat in the west to the mineral-rich Chota Nagpur Plateau in Jharkhand in the east. [177] Further south, the remaining peninsular landmass, the Deccan Plateau, is bordered on the west and east by the coastal mountain ranges known as the Western and Eastern Ghats; [178] the plateau itself contains some of the country's most ancient rock formations, with some dating back over a billion years. Formed in this manner, India is situated north of the equator, spanning latitudes between 6° 44′ and 35° 30′ north [m] and longitudes between 68° 7′ and 97° 25′ east. [179]

India's coastline stretches for 7,517 kilometers (4,700 mi); of this total, 5,423 kilometers (3,400 mi) belong to peninsular India, while the remaining 2,094 kilometers (1,300 mi) are attributed to the island chains of the Andaman, Nicobar, and Lakshadweep. [180] According to the hydrographic charts of the Indian navy, the mainland coastline is composed of: 43% sandy beaches, 11% rocky shores including cliffs, and 46% mudflats or marshy shores. [180] Major rivers originating in the Himalayas, which flow significantly through India, include the Ganges and the Brahmaputra, both of which eventually discharge into the Bay of Bengal. [181]

Key tributaries feeding the Ganges include the Yamuna and the Kosi. The Kosi's extremely gentle gradient, a result of long-term silt deposition, frequently leads to severe flooding and significant shifts in its course. [182] [183] Major peninsular rivers, whose steeper gradients prevent significant flooding, include the Godavari, the Mahanadi, the Kaveri, and the Krishna, all of which also drain into the Bay of Bengal; [184] and the Narmada and the Tapti, which flow into the Arabian Sea. [185] Coastal features of note include the marshy expanse of the Rann of Kutch in western India and the alluvial delta of the Sundarbans in eastern India, the latter shared with Bangladesh. [186] India is home to two archipelagos: the Lakshadweep, comprised of coral atolls off India's southwestern coast; and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, a volcanic chain situated in the Andaman Sea. [187]

Climate

India's climate is profoundly shaped by the imposing Himalayas and the arid Thar Desert, both of which exert considerable influence on the economically and culturally vital summer and winter monsoons. [188] The Himalayas act as a formidable barrier, preventing the frigid katabatic winds from Central Asia from penetrating the subcontinent, thereby maintaining warmer temperatures across most of India compared to other locations at similar latitudes. [189] [190] The Thar Desert plays a crucial role in attracting the moisture-laden south-westerly monsoon winds. Between June and October, these winds deliver the majority of India's annual rainfall. [188]

Four primary climatic classifications dominate India: tropical wet, tropical dry, subtropical humid, and montane. [191] Temperatures across India have shown an increase of 0.7 °C (1.3 °F) between 1901 and 2018. [192] Climate change in India is widely considered to be the primary driver of this warming trend. The observed retreat of Himalayan glaciers has had a detrimental impact on the flow rate of major Himalayan rivers, including the Ganges and the [Brahmaputra]. [193] According to some current projections, the frequency and intensity of droughts in India are expected to increase significantly by the end of the current century. [194]

Biodiversity

India harbors the majority of the world's wild tigers, with approximately 3,170 individuals recorded in 2022. [195] A chital ( Axis axis ) stag in Nagarhole National Park, situated in a region characterized by moderately dense [n] forest. In 1948, three of the last remaining Asiatic cheetahs in India were tragically shot in the Surguja district, Madhya Pradesh, Central India, by Maharajah Ramanuj Pratap Singh Deo. These young male cheetahs, all from the same litter, were resting together when they were killed at night.

India is recognized as a megadiverse country, a designation reserved for 17 nations exhibiting exceptionally high biological diversity and harboring numerous species that are exclusively indigenous, or endemic, to their territories. [196] India serves as the habitat for 8.6% of all known mammals, 13.7% of bird species, 7.9% of reptile species, 6% of amphibian species, 12.2% of fish species, and 6.0% of all flowering plant species found globally. [197] [198] A remarkable one-third of India's plant species are endemic. [199] Furthermore, India encompasses four of the world's 34 designated biodiversity hotspots, [70] which are biogeographical regions characterized by significant habitat loss alongside a high degree of endemism. [o] [200]

India's most densely forested regions, such as the tropical moist forest found in the Andaman Islands, the Western Ghats, and Northeast India, cover approximately 3% of its land area. [201] [202] Moderately dense forests, defined by a canopy density ranging between 40% and 70%, extend across 9.39% of India's territory. [201] [202] These forests are predominant in the temperate coniferous forest zones of the Himalayas, the moist deciduous sal forests of eastern India, and the dry deciduous teak forests of central and southern India. [203] India features two natural zones of thorn forest: one situated in the Deccan Plateau, to the east of the Western Ghats, and the other in the western sector of the Indo-Gangetic plain, which has since been transformed into highly productive agricultural land through extensive irrigation, rendering its original thorn forest features virtually invisible. [204] Among the notable indigenous trees of the Indian subcontinent are the astringent Azadirachta indica, commonly known as neem, widely utilized in rural Indian [herbal medicine], [205] and the luxuriant Ficus religiosa, or peepul tree, [206] which is depicted on the ancient seals unearthed at [Mohenjo-daro], [207] and beneath which, according to the Pali canon, the Buddha attained enlightenment. [208]

A significant portion of India's flora and fauna are descendants of species originating from Gondwana, the southern supercontinent from which India separated more than 100 million years ago. [209] India's subsequent collision with Eurasia triggered a massive exchange of species. However, geological events such as volcanism and shifts in climatic changes later led to the extinction of numerous endemic Indian species. [210] Subsequently, mammals migrated into India from Asia through two zoogeographic corridors flanking the Himalayas. [211] This influx resulted in a reduction of endemism among India's mammal populations, which stands at 12.6%, in contrast to the much higher rates observed among reptiles (45.8%) and amphibians (55.8%). [198] Among the endemic species are the vulnerable [212] hooded leaf monkey [213] and the threatened Beddome's toad [214] [215], both found in the Western Ghats.

India is home to 172 IUCN-designated threatened animal species, representing 2.9% of all endangered forms globally. [216] These include the endangered Bengal tiger and the Ganges river dolphin. Among the critically endangered species are the gharial, a unique crocodilian; the great Indian bustard; and the Indian white-rumped vulture, which has faced near extinction due to ingesting the carrion of cattle treated with the veterinary drug diclofenac. [217] Prior to their extensive conversion for agriculture and clearance for human settlement, the thorn forests of Punjab were interspersed with open grasslands that supported large herds of blackbuck, preyed upon by the Asiatic cheetah; the blackbuck, now extinct in Punjab, is severely endangered in India, and the cheetah has vanished entirely from the country. [218] The pervasive and ecologically destructive encroachment by humans in recent decades has critically endangered India's wildlife. In response, the system of national parks and protected areas, initially established in 1935, has undergone substantial expansion. In 1972, India enacted the Wildlife Protection Act [219] and launched Project Tiger to safeguard vital wilderness areas; the Forest Conservation Act followed in 1980, with amendments added in 1988. [220] India hosts more than five hundred wildlife sanctuaries and eighteen biosphere reserves, [221] four of which are integrated into the World Network of Biosphere Reserves; its eighty-nine wetlands are officially registered under the Ramsar Convention. [222]

Government and politics

Politics

As part of the Janadesh 2007 movement, 25,000 landless individuals advocating for land reform listen to Rajagopal P. V. in Madhya Pradesh. [223] US President Barack Obama addresses the members of the Parliament of India in New Delhi in November 2010.

India operates as a parliamentary republic characterized by a multi-party system. [224] It recognizes six national parties, including the Indian National Congress (widely known as the Congress) and the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), alongside over 50 regional parties. [225] The Congress is generally considered to occupy the ideological centre within India's [political culture], [226] while the BJP aligns with right-wing to far-right ideologies. [227] [228] [229] From 1950 until the late 1980s, the Congress consistently held a majority in India's parliament. Subsequently, it began to share power more frequently with the BJP, [230] as well as with influential regional parties, which necessitated the formation of multi-party coalition governments at the national level. [231]

In the general elections held in 1951, 1957, and 1962, the Congress, under the leadership of Jawaharlal Nehru, secured decisive victories. Following Nehru's death in 1964, Lal Bahadur Shastri briefly held the prime ministerial office; he was succeeded in 1966 by Nehru's daughter, Indira Gandhi, who led the Congress to election triumphs in 1967 and 1971. Public dissatisfaction with the state of emergency declared by Indira Gandhi in 1975 led to the Congress being ousted from power in the 1977 elections; the Janata Party, which had opposed the emergency measures, was voted into government. Its tenure lasted two years, with Morarji Desai and Charan Singh serving as prime ministers. After the Congress returned to power in 1980, Indira Gandhi was tragically assassinated and succeeded by her son, Rajiv Gandhi, who achieved a comfortable victory in the elections held later that year. A National Front coalition, led by the Janata Dal in alliance with the Left Front, emerged victorious in the 1989 elections; the subsequent government lasted just under two years, with V.P. Singh and Chandra Shekhar serving as prime ministers. [232] In the 1991 Indian general election, the Congress, as the largest single party, formed a minority government led by P. V. Narasimha Rao. [233]

Following the 1996 Indian general election, the BJP formed a government for a brief period; this was succeeded by United Front coalitions, which relied on external political backing. Two prime ministers held office during this period: H.D. Deve Gowda and I.K. Gujral. In 1998, the BJP formed a coalition known as the National Democratic Alliance (NDA). Under the leadership of Atal Bihari Vajpayee, the NDA became the first non-Congress coalition government to complete a full five-year term. [234] In the 2004 Indian general elections, no single party secured an absolute majority. Nevertheless, the Congress emerged as the largest party, forming another successful coalition: the United Progressive Alliance (UPA). This alliance garnered support from left-leaning parties and members of parliament who opposed the BJP. The UPA was returned to power in the 2009 general election with an increased number of seats, no longer requiring external support from India's communist parties. [235] Manmohan Singh became the first prime minister since Jawaharlal Nehru in 1957 and 1962 to be re-elected for a consecutive five-year term. [236] In the 2014 general election, the BJP became the first political party since 1984 to achieve an absolute majority. [237] The BJP secured an absolute majority again in the 2019 general election. In the 2024 general election, a BJP-led NDA coalition successfully formed the government. Narendra Modi, a former chief minister of Gujarat, is now serving his third term as Prime Minister of India, holding the position since May 26, 2014. [238]

Government

Rashtrapati Bhavan, the official residence of the President of India, was conceived by British architects Edwin Lutyens and Herbert Baker for the Viceroy of India, and its construction spanned from 1911 to 1931 during the period of the British Raj. [239]

India functions as a federation with a parliamentary system governed by the Constitution of India. The principle of federalism in India delineates the division of powers between the central union and the individual states. India's governmental structure, often described as "quasi-federal" with a strong central authority and comparatively weaker states, [240] has evolved towards a more federal character since the late 1990s, influenced by significant political, economic, and social transformations. [241] [242]

The Government of India is structured into three distinct branches: the Executive, the Legislature, and the Judiciary. [243] The President of India serves as the ceremonial [head of state], [244] elected indirectly for a five-year term by an electoral college composed of members from both national and state legislatures. [245] [246] The Prime Minister of India functions as the [head of government] and wields the majority of executive power. [247] Appointed by the president, [248] the prime minister is supported by the political party or political alliance that commands a majority in the lower house of parliament. [247] The executive branch of the Indian government comprises the president, the vice-president, and the Union Council of Ministers—with the cabinet acting as its executive committee—all headed by the prime minister. Crucially, any minister holding a portfolio must be a member of either house of parliament. [244] Within India's parliamentary framework, the executive is subordinate to the legislature; the prime minister and their council are directly accountable to the lower house of parliament. Permanent civil servants act as the executive's administrative arm, responsible for implementing all government decisions. [249]

India's legislature is a bicameral body known as the parliament. Operating within a Westminster-style parliamentary framework, it consists of an upper house, the Rajya Sabha (Council of States), and a lower house, the Lok Sabha (House of the People). [250] The Rajya Sabha is a permanent institution with 245 members serving staggered six-year terms, with elections occurring every two years. [251] The majority of these members are indirectly elected by the legislative bodies of the states and union territories in proportion to their respective state's population share within the national demographic. [248] The Lok Sabha comprises 543 members who are directly elected by popular vote from among citizens aged 18 and above; [252] they represent single-member constituencies and serve five-year terms. [253] A specific number of seats within each state are reserved for candidates belonging to Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, allocated in accordance with their population proportion within that state. [252]

India possesses a three-tiered system of independent judiciary, consisting of the [Supreme Court of India], presided over by the [Chief Justice of India], 25 High Courts, and a substantial number of trial courts. [254] The Supreme Court holds [original jurisdiction] over cases pertaining to fundamental rights and disputes between states and the central government. It also possesses [appellate jurisdiction] over decisions rendered by the high courts. [255] Furthermore, it has the authority to invalidate both union and state laws that contravene the constitution, [256] as well as to nullify any government action deemed unconstitutional. [257]

Administrative divisions

India is structured as a federal union, encompassing 28 states and 8 [union territories]. [12] All states, along with the union territories of Jammu and Kashmir, Puducherry, and the National Capital Territory of Delhi, feature elected legislatures and governments that operate under the Westminster system. The remaining five union territories are administered directly by the central government through appointed officials. In 1956, through the States Reorganisation Act, states were reorganized based on linguistic demarcations. [258] The country has over a quarter of a million local government bodies operating at various levels, including city, town, block, district, and village. [259]

States

Union territories

Foreign relations

In the 1950s and 60s, India played a pivotal role in the Non-Aligned Movement. Pictured here are (from left to right) Gamal Abdel Nasser of the United Arab Republic (now Egypt), Josip Broz Tito of Yugoslavia, and Jawaharlal Nehru in Belgrade, September 1961. The Indian Air Force contingent marching in the 221st Bastille Day military parade in Paris, July 2009. The parade, where India was the foreign guest, was led by India's oldest regiment, the Maratha Light Infantry, established in 1768. [261]

India formally became a republic in 1950, while maintaining its membership within the Commonwealth of Nations. [262] [263] During the 1950s, India strongly advocated for decolonization across Africa and Asia, taking a leading role in the Non-Aligned Movement. [264] Following an initially cordial relationship, India experienced a significant military defeat at the hands of China in a 1962 war. [265] Another military conflict occurred in 1967, in which India successfully repelled a Chinese incursion. [266]

India has maintained an uneasy relationship with its western neighbor, Pakistan. The two nations have engaged in warfare in 1947, 1965, 1971, and 1999. Three of these conflicts were directly related to the disputed territory of Kashmir. In contrast, the 1971 war stemmed from India's support for the independence of Bangladesh. [267] Following the 1965 war with Pakistan, India began to cultivate close military and economic ties with the Soviet Union. By the late 1960s, the Soviet Union had become its primary supplier of arms. [268] India has played a crucial role within the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation and the World Trade Organization. The nation has contributed approximately 100,000 military and police personnel to 35 UN peacekeeping operations. [ citation needed ]

China's nuclear test in 1964 and its threats to intervene in support of Pakistan during the 1965 war prompted India to develop its own nuclear weapons. [269] India conducted its first nuclear weapons test in 1974 and carried out further underground testing in 1998. India has notably not signed either the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty or the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, viewing both as flawed and discriminatory. [270] India adheres to a "no first use" nuclear policy and is actively developing a nuclear triad capability as part of its doctrine of "Minimum Credible Deterrence". [271] [272]

Since the conclusion of the Cold War, India has significantly enhanced its economic, strategic, and military collaborations with the United States and the European Union. [273] In 2008, a landmark civilian nuclear agreement was finalized between India and the United States. Although India possessed nuclear weapons at the time and was not a signatory to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, it secured waivers from the International Atomic Energy Agency and the Nuclear Suppliers Group, effectively ending previous restrictions on India's nuclear technology and trade. Subsequently, India entered into cooperation agreements related to civilian nuclear energy with Russia, [274] France, [275] the United Kingdom, [276] and Canada. [277]

The President of India serves as the supreme commander of the nation's armed forces. With a standing force of 1.45 million active personnel, they constitute the world's second-largest military. This comprises the Indian Army, the Indian Navy, the Indian Air Force, and the Indian Coast Guard. [278] India's official defence budget for 2011 was US36.03billion,representing1.8336.03 billion, representing 1.83% of its GDP. [279] Defence expenditure was projected at US70.12 billion for the fiscal year 2022–23, marking a 9.8% increase from the previous fiscal year. [280] [281] India holds the distinction of being the world's second-largest importer of arms; between 2016 and 2020, it accounted for 9.5% of global arms imports. [282] A significant portion of this military spending is directed towards defence against Pakistan and countering the growing influence of China in the Indian Ocean region. [283]

Economy

In 2019, agriculture employed 43% of India's total workforce. [284] India is the world's largest producer of milk, possessing the largest cattle population. In 2018, nearly 80% of India's milk production originated from small farms with herd sizes averaging one to two animals, with milk harvested through manual milking. [286] In 2019, 55% of India's female workforce was engaged in agriculture. [285]

According to the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the Indian economy in 2024 was valued nominally at 3.94trillion;itranksasthe[fifth−largesteconomy](/ListofcountriesbyGDP(nominal))basedonmarketexchangeratesand,atapproximately3.94 trillion; it ranks as the [fifth-largest economy](/List_of_countries_by_GDP_(nominal)) based on market exchange rates and, at approximately 15.0 trillion, holds the third-largest position when measured by purchasing power parity (PPP). [16] With an average annual GDP growth rate of 5.8% over the preceding two decades, and reaching 6.1% during 2011–2012, [287] India stands as one of the world's fastest-growing economies. [288] However, due to its relatively low GDP per capita—ranking 136th globally in nominal per capita income and 125th in per capita income adjusted for purchasing power parity (PPP)—the vast majority of Indians fall into the low-income bracket. [289] [290]

Until 1991, all Indian governments strictly adhered to protectionist policies influenced by socialist economic principles. Extensive state intervention and regulation largely insulated the economy from global influences. A severe balance of payments crisis in 1991 necessitated the nation's move towards liberalising its economy; [291] since then, it has progressively shifted towards a free-market system [292] [293] by prioritizing both foreign trade and direct investment inflows. [294] India has been a member of the World Trade Organization since January 1, 1995. [295]

As of 2017, India's workforce comprises 522 million individuals, making it the world's second-largest labour force. [278] The service sector contributes 55.6% to the GDP, followed by the industrial sector at 26.3%, and the agricultural sector at 18.1%. India's foreign exchange remittances, amounting to US$100 billion in 2022, [296] the highest globally, were largely generated by the 32 million Indians employed abroad. [297] In 2006, external trade constituted 24% of India's GDP, an increase from 6% in 1985. [292] By 2008, India's share in global trade stood at 1.7%; [298] in 2021, India ranked as the world's ninth-largest importer and the sixteenth-largest exporter. [299] Between 2001 and 2011, the contribution of petrochemical and engineering goods to total exports rose from 14% to 42%. [300] In the 2013 calendar year, India held the position of the world's second-largest textile exporter, trailing only China. [301]

Experiencing an average economic growth rate of 7.5% for several years prior to 2007, [292] India has more than doubled its hourly wage rates within the first decade of the 21st century. [302] Approximately 431 million Indians have been lifted out of poverty since 1985; India's middle class is projected to reach around 580 million by 2030. [303] In 2024, India's consumer market was recognized as the world's third largest. [304] India's nominal GDP per capita has shown a steady increase, rising from US308in1991,theyeareconomicliberalizationcommenced,toUS308 in 1991, the year economic liberalization commenced, to US1,380 in 2010, and is estimated to reach US2,731in2024.ProjectionsindicateafurtherincreasetoUS2,731 in 2024. Projections indicate a further increase to US3,264 by 2026. [16]

Industries

A tea plantation in Sikkim. India, the world's second-largest producer of tea, is a nation of one billion tea drinkers, consuming 70% of its own tea output.

The Indian automotive industry, recognized as the world's second-fastest growing, experienced a 26% increase in domestic sales during 2009–2010, [305] and a 36% rise in exports during 2008–2009. [306] By 2022, India had ascended to become the world's third-largest vehicle market, surpassing Japan and following only China and the United States. [307] As of the end of 2011, the Indian IT industry employed 2.8 million professionals, generated revenues close to US$100 billion (equivalent to 7.5% of India's GDP), and contributed 26% of the nation's merchandise exports. [308]

The pharmaceutical industry in India comprises 3,000 companies and 10,500 manufacturing units. India stands as the world's third-largest producer of pharmaceuticals, the leading manufacturer of generic medicines, and supplies up to 50–60% of the global demand for vaccines. These contributions generate approximately US24.44billioninexports,withIndia′sdomesticpharmaceuticalmarketestimatedatuptoUS24.44 billion in exports, with India's domestic pharmaceutical market estimated at up to US42 billion. [309] [310] India is also ranked among the top 12 global destinations for biotechnology. [311] [312] The Indian biotechnology sector experienced a growth rate of 15.1% between 2012 and 2013, increasing its revenue from ₹204.4 billion (Indian rupees) to ₹235.24 billion (equivalent to US$3.94 billion at June 2013 exchange rates). [313]

Energy

India's capacity for electrical power generation stands at 300 gigawatts, with 42 gigawatts derived from renewable sources. [314] The nation's reliance on coal is a significant contributor to [India's greenhouse gas emissions], [Climate_change_in_India] however, its renewable energy sector is demonstrating robust competitiveness. [315] [ better source needed ] India accounts for approximately 7% of global greenhouse gas emissions, translating to roughly 2.5 tons of carbon dioxide per person annually, which is half the global average. [316] [317] Enhancing access to electricity and promoting clean cooking through the use of liquefied petroleum gas have been identified as key priorities for India's energy sector. [318]

Socio-economic challenges

Despite considerable economic growth over recent decades, India continues to confront significant socio-economic challenges. In 2006, India housed the largest number of individuals living below the [World Bank]'s international poverty line of US$1.25 per day. [320] This proportion decreased from 60% in 1981 to 42% in 2005. [321] Using the World Bank's later revised poverty line, this figure stood at 21%-22.5% in 2011. [p] [323] [324] By 2019, estimates indicated a further reduction to 10.2%. [324] In 2014, a staggering 30.7% of India's children under the age of five were classified as underweight. [325] According to a report by the Food and Agriculture Organization in 2015, 15% of the population experienced undernourishment. [326] [327] The Midday Meal Scheme is one initiative aimed at mitigating these rates. [328]

A 2018 report by the Walk Free Foundation estimated that nearly 8 million individuals in India were living in various forms of modern slavery, including bonded labour, child labour, human trafficking, and forced begging. [329] The 2011 census documented 10.1 million child laborers across the country, representing a decrease of 2.6 million from the 12.6 million recorded in 2001. [330]

Since 1991, the economic disparity between India's states has consistently widened: in 2007, the per capita [net state domestic product] of the wealthiest states was 3.2 times that of the poorest. [331] Perceptions of corruption in India suggest a decrease; according to the Corruption Perceptions Index, India ranked 78th out of 180 countries in 2018, an improvement from its 85th position in 2014. [332] [333]

Demographics

With an estimated 1,428,627,663 residents as of 2023, India holds the distinction of being the world's most populous country. [13] The 2011 provisional census report recorded a population of 1,210,193,422 residents. [334] The population experienced a growth rate of 17.64% between 2001 and 2011, [335] a slight decrease from the 21.54% growth recorded in the preceding decade (1991–2001). [335] The human sex ratio, according to the 2011 census, is 940 females for every 1,000 males. [334] The median age in India was 28.7 years in 2020. [278]

The first census conducted after India's independence, in 1951, counted a total of 361 million people. [336] Advances in medical science over the past 50 years, coupled with increased agricultural productivity driven by the "Green Revolution," have contributed to India's rapid population growth. [337] Life expectancy at birth in India ranges from 70 to 71.5 years for women and 68.7 years for men. [278] The country has approximately 93 physicians per 100,000 inhabitants. [338]

Urbanisation

The movement of people from rural areas to urban centers has been a significant demographic trend in India's recent history. The urban population saw a growth of 31.2% between 1991 and 2001. [339] In 2001, over 70% of the population resided in rural areas. [340] [341] The overall level of urbanization increased from 27.81% in the 2001 census to 31.16% in the 2011 census. This deceleration in the overall population growth rate is attributed to a sharp decline in the growth rate observed in rural areas since 1991. [342] The 2011 census identified 53 million-plus urban agglomerations in India. Among these, Mumbai, Delhi, Kolkata, Chennai, Bengaluru, Hyderabad, and [Ahmedabad] were the most populous, listed in descending order. [343]

According to various air quality reports, 83 of the world's top 100 most polluted cities are located within India. [344] [345] [346] [347] [348]

Languages

Among speakers of Indian languages, 74% converse in Indo-Aryan languages (which represent the easternmost branch of the Indo-European languages), 24% speak Dravidian languages (indigenous to South Asia and widely spoken before the expansion of Indo-Aryan languages), and 2% use Austroasiatic languages or Sino-Tibetan languages. India does not have a designated national language. [349] Hindi, with the largest number of speakers, serves as the official language of the government. [350] [351] English is extensively utilized in business and administrative contexts and holds the status of a "subsidiary official language"; [6] it plays a crucial role in education, particularly as the medium of instruction in higher education. Each state and union territory maintains one or more official languages, and the constitution specifically recognizes 22 "scheduled languages."

Religion

The 2011 census reported that the predominant religion in India was Hinduism, practiced by 79.80% of the population, followed by Islam at 14.23%. The remaining religious affiliations included Christianity (2.30%), Sikhism (1.72%), Buddhism (0.70%), Jainism (0.36%), and others [q] (0.9%). [11] India has the third-largest Muslim population globally, representing the largest such population in a country that is not Muslim-majority. [352] [353]

Education

Children await their school lunch in Rayka (also known as Raika), a village in rural Gujarat. The phrase Jai Bhim is inscribed on the blackboard, honoring the jurist, social reformer, and Dalit leader B. R. Ambedkar.

The literacy rate in 2011 stood at 74.04%, with 65.46% among females and 82.14% among males. [354] The disparity in literacy rates between rural and urban areas, which was 21.2 percentage points in 2001, narrowed to 16.1 percentage points by 2011. The improvement in rural literacy rates was observed to be twice that of urban areas. [342] Kerala boasts the highest literacy rate at 93.91%, while Bihar records the lowest at 63.82%. [354] According to the 2011 census, approximately 73% of the population was literate, with figures of 81% for men and 65% for women. This contrasts with 1981, when the respective rates were 41%, 53%, and 29%. In 1951, these rates were 18%, 27%, and 9%. By 1921, they had reached 7%, 12%, and 2%. In 1891, the rates were recorded as 5%, 9%, and 1%, respectively. [355] [356] Latika Chaudhary's research indicates that in 1911, there were fewer than three primary schools for every ten villages. Statistically, a greater degree of caste and religious diversity tended to reduce private investment in education. Since primary schools focused on literacy, the prevalence of local diversity consequently limited its expansion. [357]

India's education system is the second-largest globally. [358] The country hosts over 900 universities, 40,000 colleges, [359] and 1.5 million schools. [360] Within India's higher education system, a significant proportion of seats are reserved under affirmative action policies for historically disadvantaged groups. In recent decades, the improvement in India's education system is frequently cited as a primary contributor to its [economic development]. [361] [362]

Health

The life expectancy at birth has increased from 49.7 years in the 1970–1975 period to 72.0 years in 2023. [363] [364] The under-five mortality rate for the country was 113 per 1,000 live births in 1994, decreasing to 41.1 per 1,000 live births by 2018. [363]

India carries a disproportionately high burden of the world's tuberculosis rates; according to World Health Organization (WHO) statistics for 2022, an estimated 2.8 million new infections occur annually, accounting for 26% of the global total. [365] It is estimated that approximately 40% of India's population harbors a tuberculosis infection. [366]

In 2018, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease emerged as the leading cause of death, following heart disease. Ten of the most polluted cities in the world are located in India, with over 140 million people exposed to air quality ten times or more above the WHO's safe limit. In 2017, air pollution was responsible for the deaths of 1.24 million Indians. [367]

Culture

Society

Muslims engage in namaz at a mosque in Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir.

The Indian caste system significantly embodies much of the social stratification and numerous social restrictions prevalent on the Indian subcontinent. Social strata are delineated by thousands of endogamous hereditary groups, commonly referred to as jātis, or "castes." [368] India officially abolished untouchability in 1950 with the adoption of its constitution, and has since enacted further anti-discriminatory legislation and implemented social welfare initiatives. [r] However, the system continues to exert considerable influence across India, and caste-based inequality, discrimination, segregation, and violence persist. [370] [371]

Multi-generational patrilineal joint families have traditionally been the norm in India, although nuclear families are becoming increasingly common in urban settings. [372] The overwhelming majority of Indians have their marriages arranged by their parents or other elder family members. [373] Marriage is generally viewed as a lifelong commitment, [373] and the divorce rate remains exceptionally low, [374] with fewer than one in a thousand marriages ending in divorce. [375] Child marriages are prevalent, particularly in rural areas; many women enter marriage before reaching the age of 18, which is their legal age for marriage. [376] Female infanticide in India, and more recently female foeticide, have contributed to skewed gender ratios; the number of [missing women] in the country quadrupled from 15 million to 63 million over the 50 years leading up to 2014, a rate of increase faster than the population growth during the same period. [377] According to a study conducted by the Indian government, an additional 21 million girls are considered unwanted and do not receive adequate care. [378] Despite a government prohibition on sex-selective foeticide, the practice remains widespread in India, largely due to a societal preference for male offspring within a patriarchal framework. [379] The practice of paying dowry, although illegal, continues to be common across various social classes. [380] Deaths resulting from dowry, predominantly through incidents of bride burning, are on the rise, despite stringent anti-dowry legislation. [381]

Visual art

India possesses a profoundly ancient artistic tradition, marked by numerous exchanges of influence with the rest of Eurasia, particularly during the first millennium CE. During this period, [Buddhist art] traveled with Indian religions to Central, East, and Southeast Asia, with the latter region also significantly influenced by [Hindu art]. [382] Thousands of seals from the Indus Valley civilisation, dating back to the third millennium BCE, have been discovered, typically carved with animal motifs, but also featuring some human figures. The Pashupati seal, excavated at Mohenjo-daro, Pakistan, in 1928–29, is the most renowned example. [383] [384] Following this period, there is a considerable gap in surviving artistic evidence. [384] [385] Almost all surviving ancient Indian art thereafter consists of religious sculpture rendered in durable materials, or coins. It is likely that a substantial amount of art was originally created in wood, which has not survived. In northern India, [Mauryan art] represents the earliest significant imperial artistic movement. [386] [387] [388]

During the first millennium CE, [Buddhist art] spread alongside Indian religions to Central, East, and Southeast Asia, with the latter region also experiencing considerable influence from [Hindu art]. [389] Over the subsequent centuries, a distinctively Indian style of sculpting the human figure evolved, demonstrating less emphasis on articulating precise anatomy compared to [ancient Greek sculpture] but showcasing smoothly flowing forms that convey prana ("breath" or life-force). [390] [391] This artistic tradition is often complicated by the necessity of depicting figures with multiple arms or heads, or representing different genders on either side of a single figure, as exemplified by the [Ardhanarishvara] form of Shiva and [Parvati]. [392] [393]

The majority of the earliest large-scale sculptures are Buddhist in origin, either excavated from Buddhist [stupas] such as those at Sanchi, Sarnath, and Amaravati, [394] or found as rock-cut [reliefs] at sites like Ajanta, Karla, and [Ellora]. Hindu and Jain sites tend to appear later. [395] [396] Despite this complex interplay of religious traditions, the prevailing artistic style in any given period and location was generally shared across the major religious groups, with sculptors likely serving all communities. [397] [Gupta art], reaching its zenith around c. 300 CE – c. 500 CE, is often regarded as a classical period whose influence persisted for many centuries; it witnessed a renewed dominance of Hindu sculpture, as seen in the Elephanta Caves. [398] [399] Across northern India, this style became somewhat rigid and formulaic after approximately 800 CE, though it retained intricate carved details in the surrounding decorative elements. [400] However, in the South, under the Pallava and Chola dynasties, sculpture in both stone and bronze achieved a sustained period of remarkable excellence; the monumental bronze figures of Shiva as [Nataraja] have become an iconic representation of India. [401] [402]

Ancient paintings have survived in only a few locations, with the crowded scenes of courtly life depicted in the Ajanta Caves being among the most significant. [403] [404] Painted manuscripts of religious texts originating from Eastern India, dating from the 10th century onwards, are preserved; the earliest are predominantly Buddhist, with later examples being Jain. These significantly influenced subsequent artistic styles. [405] The Persian-influenced [Deccan painting], emerging shortly before the [Mughal miniature] style, together represent the first substantial body of secular painting, with a focus on portraits and the documentation of princely pursuits and conflicts. [406] [407] This style extended to Hindu courts, notably among the [Rajputs], where it developed into a variety of regional styles, with smaller courts often demonstrating the most innovation, nurturing artists like Nihâl Chand and [Nainsukh]. [408] [409] As a market emerged among European residents, it was supplied by [Company painting], created by Indian artists incorporating considerable Western influence. [410] [411] In the 19th century, inexpensive [Kalighat paintings] depicting deities and everyday life, rendered on paper, emerged as urban [folk art] from [Calcutta], which later saw the development of the [Bengal School of Art], reflecting the influence of art colleges established by the British, marking the first movement in [modern Indian painting]. [412] [413]

Clothing

From ancient times until the dawn of modernity, the most prevalent form of traditional attire in India was draped clothing. [414] For women, this typically took the form of a sari, an extensive length of cloth. [414] Traditionally, the sari was wrapped around the lower body and draped over the shoulder. [414] In its contemporary iteration, it is worn in conjunction with an underskirt, or Indian petticoat, and secured at the waist for greater stability. It is also commonly paired with an Indian blouse, or choli, which serves as the primary upper-body garment, with the end of the sari passing over the shoulder to cover the midriff and conceal the contours of the upper body. [414] For men, a similar, albeit shorter, length of cloth, the dhoti, has traditionally served as the lower-body garment. [415]

The adoption of stitched clothing became widespread following the establishment of Muslim rule, initially by the Delhi Sultanate (circa 1300 CE) and subsequently continued under the Mughal Empire (circa 1525 CE). [416] Among the garments introduced during this period and still commonly worn are: the shalwars and [pyjamas], both styles of trousers, and the tunics known as kurta and kameez. [416] In southern India, draped garments continued to be the predominant form of attire for a more extended period. [416]

Shalwars are characteristically wide at the waist but taper towards a cuffed hem. They are secured by a drawstring, which causes the fabric to pleat around the waist. [417] These trousers can be voluminous and baggy, or they can be cut quite narrowly, following the grain (textile), in which case they are referred to as churidars. When they are conventionally wide at the waist and their bottoms are hemmed but not cuffed, they are known as pyjamas. The kameez is a long shirt or tunic, [418] with its side seams left open below the waistline. [419] The kurta is traditionally collarless and fashioned from cotton or silk; it is worn plain or adorned with embroidery, such as chikankari, and typically extends to a length either just above or just below the wearer's knees. [420]

In the last 50 years, fashion trends in India have undergone significant changes. Increasingly, in urban northern India, the sari is no longer the everyday attire, although it remains popular for formal occasions. [421] The traditional shalwar kameez is rarely worn by younger urban women, who now favor churidars or jeans. [421] In office environments, the pervasive air conditioning permits men to wear sports jackets year-round. [421] For weddings and formal events, men from the middle and upper classes frequently opt for [Jodhpuri bandhgala] or short [Nehru jackets], paired with trousers. The groom and his groomsmen typically don [sherwanis] and churidars. [421] The dhoti, once the ubiquitous garment for Hindu men, the wearing of which in homespun and handwoven [khadi] allowed Gandhi to connect Indian nationalism with the masses, [422] is now seldom seen in urban centers. [421]

Cuisine

A typical South Indian vegetarian thali, or platter.

The foundation of a standard Indian meal typically consists of a plainly cooked cereal, complemented by flavorful savory dishes. [423] The cooked cereal might be steamed rice; chapati, a thin unleavened bread; [424] the idli, a steamed breakfast cake; or dosa, a griddled pancake. [425] The savory accompaniments could include lentils, pulses, and vegetables, often spiced with ginger and garlic, but also featuring a blend of spices that may incorporate coriander, cumin, turmeric, cinnamon, cardamom, and others. [423] These dishes might also feature poultry, fish, or meat preparations. In certain instances, ingredients are combined during the cooking process. [426]

A platter, or thali, used for dining typically reserves a central space for the cooked cereal, with peripheral areas designated for the flavorful accompaniments. The cereal and its accompanying dishes are consumed simultaneously rather than sequentially. This is achieved through methods such as mixing—for example, rice and lentils—or by folding, wrapping, scooping, or dipping—such as with chapati and cooked vegetables. [423]

A tandoor chef in Turkman Gate, Old Delhi, prepares Khameeri roti (a style of leavened bread influenced by Muslim traditions). [427]

India is distinguished by its diverse vegetarian cuisines, each reflecting the geographical and cultural histories of its adherents. [428] Approximately 20% to 39% of India's population adheres to vegetarianism. [429] [430] A significant factor contributing to this prevalence is the caste hierarchy, as upper castes, such as the Brahmins, consider vegetarian food to be "pure." [431] [432] While meat is widely consumed in India, its proportional consumption within the overall diet remains low. [433] Unlike China, which has substantially increased its per capita meat consumption during periods of heightened economic growth, India's deeply ingrained dietary traditions have historically favored dairy products over meat as the preferred source of animal protein. [434]

The most significant culinary influence introduced into India during the past millennium occurred during the reign of the Mughal Empire. Dishes such as the pilaf, [435] which originated in the [Abbasid Caliphate], [436] and cooking techniques like marinating meat in yogurt, spread into northern India from regions to its northwest. [437] To the basic yogurt marinade of Persia, ingredients such as onions, garlic, almonds, and spices began to be incorporated in India. [437] Rice was partially cooked and layered alternately with sautéed meat, the pot was sealed tightly, and slow-cooked using another Persian culinary technique, resulting in what is now known as [biryani], [437] a staple of festive dining throughout many parts of India. [438]

Within the context of Indian cuisine served in restaurants globally, the rich diversity of Indian food has been somewhat overshadowed by the prominence of Punjabi cuisine. The popularity of [tandoori chicken]—cooked in the [tandoor] oven, a cooking method traditionally used for baking bread in the rural Punjab and Delhi regions, particularly among Muslims, but with origins in [Central Asia]—dates back to the 1950s. Its rise in popularity is largely attributed to the entrepreneurial efforts of individuals from Punjab who were displaced by the 1947 partition. [428]

Sports

Several traditional sports, including [kabaddi], [kho kho], [pehlwani], [gilli-danda], [hopscotch], and martial arts such as [Kalarippayattu] and [marma adi], remain popular in India. Chess is widely believed to have originated in India as [chaturaṅga]; [440] in recent years, [ [when?]] there has been a notable increase in the number of Indian grandmasters [441] and world champions. [442] [Parcheesi] is derived from [Pachisi], another traditional Indian pastime, which in the early modern period was played on a large marble court by the Mughal emperor [Akbar]. [443]

Cricket is the most widely followed sport in India. [444] [India] is recognized as one of the most successful teams in the world in cricket, having secured victories in two Cricket World Cups, two T20 World Cups, three Champions Trophies, and finishing as runners-up on two occasions in the World Test Championship. [India] has also achieved a record eight gold medals in field hockey at the Summer Olympics. [445]

There. A rather thorough dissection of a nation. Don't expect me to be enthusiastic about the next one. Unless, of course, it involves less… geography.