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Ancient Olympic Games

Ah, the ancient Greeks. They had their moments, I suppose. Mostly involving excessive bronze and a rather cavalier attitude towards personal space. But their athletic competitions? A fascinating, if somewhat brutal, spectacle. Let's delve into it.

Athletic competitions in ancient Greece

The Palaestra at Olympia, a place devoted to the training of wrestlers and other athletes, stands as a testament to their dedication. The Olympic Games, in their original form, were far more than just a sporting event; they were a cornerstone of ancient Greek culture, a complex tapestry woven with religion, politics, and a primal urge for physical excellence.

Main topics

One can't discuss the Olympics without acknowledging the intricate machinery that surrounds them. The Bids for hosting, the unfortunate but persistent issue of Boycotts, the grand Ceremonies that mark their opening and closing, and the very foundation of their governance, the Charter. Then there's the ever-present shadow of Doping, a problem as old as competition itself, it seems. The ever-changing list of Host cities, the oversight of IFs and the all-powerful IOC, the coveted Medal and its accompanying Medal tables and Medalists, the national bodies known as NOCs, the philosophy of Olympism, the prestigious Pierre de Coubertin Medal, the inevitable Scandals and controversies, the sheer variety of Sports on display, the iconic Symbols (and their more whimsical Mascots), the global reach of Television, the ceremonial Torch relays, the architectural marvels of the Venues and the temporary havens of the Villages. And, of course, the evolving story of Women's participation.

Games

The lineage of these grand events branches into the familiar Summer and Winter Games, and the more recent, youthful iterations like the Youth Olympic Games, and the nascent exploration into digital competition with the Olympic Esports Games.

Regional games

Beyond the global spectacle, regional competitions mirror the Olympic spirit: the African and Asian Games, the European Games, the vibrant Pacific Games, and the expansive Pan American Games. These, in turn, are further refined into sub-regional contests like the Bolivarian, Central American, and South American Games in the Americas; the Central Asian, East Asian, South Asian, Southeast Asian (SEA Games), and West Asian Games in Asia; and other distinct gatherings such as the Games of the Small States of Europe and the Mediterranean Games.

Defunct games

And then there are the echoes of the past: the Ancient Games themselves, the intriguing Esports Series, and the historically significant Intercalated Games.

Ancient Olympic Games

The ancient Olympic Games (in Ancient Greek: τὰ Ὀλύμπια, ta Olympia) were not merely a series of athletic competitions but a profound cultural phenomenon, a ritualistic gathering of representatives from various city-states. These were among the most important of the Panhellenic Games, held at the sacred site of Olympia, a sanctuary dedicated to the mighty Zeus. The Greeks themselves imbued the games with a mythological origin, weaving tales that explained their divine inception.

The traditional starting point for these monumental events is 776 BC. They occurred with a predictable four-year rhythm, a cycle that became known as an Olympiad, which subsequently transformed into a fundamental unit for measuring time in historical accounts. These Olympiads were often identified by the victor of the stadion sprint, a practice that allowed for a unique chronological marker, such as "the third year of the eighteenth Olympiad when Ladas of Argos won the stadion." Even as Greece transitioned under Roman rule in the 2nd century BC, the games persisted. Their last officially recorded celebration was in AD 393, under Emperor Theodosius I, although archaeological findings suggest that some form of athletic contests continued beyond this date. The definitive end likely came during the reign of Theodosius II, possibly coinciding with the destruction of the Temple of Olympian Zeus by fire.

A crucial element of the games was the Olympic truce, known as ekecheiría. This sacred period ensured safe passage for athletes and religious pilgrims journeying to Olympia. The rewards for victory were not material wealth, but symbolic tokens: wreaths of olive leaves, or crowns. The games, however, were never solely about sport; they were deeply entwined with politics. City-states used them as a stage to display their power and influence over rivals. Politicians seized the opportunity to forge alliances, and in times of conflict, priests would offer solemn sacrifices to the gods, seeking divine favor for their respective cities. Beyond politics, the Olympics served as a powerful conduit for disseminating Hellenistic culture throughout the Mediterranean. The sheer grandeur of the site was amplified by the presence of the Statue of Zeus at Olympia, a masterpiece of art and one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. This convergence of athleticism, religion, and artistry drew sculptors and poets, eager to showcase their talents to potential patrons.

Compared to their modern successors, the ancient Olympics featured a more limited array of events. For a considerable period, participation was restricted to freeborn Greek men, though women could achieve victory as owners of chariot teams. It's worth noting that throughout their long history, both ancient and modern, the Olympics have been susceptible to political machinations, serving as platforms for demonstrations, boycotts, and other forms of nationalistic expression. Nevertheless, any freeborn Greek, regardless of their city-state or kingdom, could compete, provided they met the stringent entry requirements. Unlike the peripatetic nature of the modern Olympic Games, the ancient contests remained steadfastly rooted in Olympia. Victors were not only celebrated in their time but their achievements were meticulously recorded for posterity.

Origin myths

The ancient Greeks, deeply spiritual people, found it imperative to anchor the Olympic Games in their rich tapestry of mythology. The very origins of the games were attributed to divine intervention, with various legends circulating about who was truly responsible for their genesis. However, a consistent thread ran through these myths: the belief that the games were fundamentally religious in nature, that athletic prowess was a form of worship, and that their revival was intended to foster peace, harmony, and a return to the foundational values of Greek life.

While untangling the precise historical threads from these enduring legends is a formidable task, certain patterns emerge that illuminate the story behind the games. The historian Pausanias, writing in the 2nd century AD, recounts a tale of the dactyl Heracles (distinct from the more famous son of Zeus) and his four brothers, who, in a playful display for the infant Zeus, engaged in races at Olympia. The victor was crowned with an olive wreath, a symbol that would endure as an emblem of peace and also, according to this legend, explain the quadrennial interval of the games. The other Olympian gods, residing on Mount Olympus, were also said to participate in wrestling, jumping, and running contests.

Another compelling origin myth centers on Pelops, a heroic figure of Olympia. The king of Pisa, Oenomaus, possessed a daughter named Hippodamia. An oracle foretold that the king would perish at the hands of his daughter's husband. To circumvent this prophecy, Oenomaus instituted a deadly chariot race: any suitor must elope with Hippodamia in a chariot, pursued by the king in his own divine steeds, gifted by Poseidon. The king, inevitably, would spear the fleeing suitor. Hippodamia, however, fell in love with Pelops and, in a clandestine act of betrayal, convinced Oenomaus's charioteer, Myrtilus, to replace the king's chariot's bronze axle pins with wax. During the race, the wax melted, causing Oenomaus to fall and meet his prophesied end. Pelops, having won the hand of Hippodamia and the kingdom, organized chariot races as a thanksgiving to the gods and as funeral games for King Oenomaus, seeking purification for his death. This funerary race at Olympia is said to have inspired the inception of the Olympic Games. Pelops, a figure of great renown, ultimately lent his name to the entire Peloponnese peninsula.

A later myth, attributed to the poet Pindar, connects the festival at Olympia to the legendary Heracles, son of Zeus. According to Pindar, Heracles established this athletic festival to honor his father after completing his arduous labors.

History

Prehistory

Across the Mediterranean, athletic pursuits had a long-standing tradition, though not always in the formalized, competitive format we recognize today. These early displays of physical prowess were often the domain of royalty and the elite. The earliest tangible evidence of athletic traditions in Greece emerges from artistic representations dating back to the Late Bronze Age, particularly from the islands of Crete and Thera. These visual records, along with Archaic literary texts, paint a picture of a society that valued physical activity.

The Minoan civilization, flourishing on Crete, embraced various forms of gymnastics. Frescoes depict scenes of bull-leaping, tumbling, running, wrestling, and boxing, showcasing a dynamic engagement with physical challenges. The Mycenaeans, who succeeded the Minoans, adopted these sporting traditions and incorporated chariot races, often within religious or funerary ceremonies. However, the precise link between these early Minoan and Mycenaean sporting activities and the later, more codified Greek practices remains somewhat elusive, a subject of ongoing scholarly debate.

The heroes immortalized in Homer's epic poems, believed to have been composed around 750 BC and reflecting a late Bronze Age society, also engage in athletic competitions, typically as part of funeral rites. The Iliad describes chariot races, boxing, wrestling, and foot races, alongside feats of fencing, archery, and spear throwing. The Odyssey further expands this repertoire, adding the long jump and the discus throw to the list of heroic contests.

First games

Boxing, a sport that would become a staple of the ancient Olympic Games, was introduced in 688 BC. The image depicts youths engaged in this vigorous contest, a scene captured around 336 BC.

The philosopher Aristotle posited that the first Olympic Games took place in 776 BC, a date that has largely been accepted by subsequent ancient historians, though not universally. This date serves as the conventional starting point for the ancient Olympics, and while definitive proof remains elusive, the consensus points to an eighth-century BC origin. Archaeological discoveries lend support to this timeline, suggesting the games began around or shortly after this period.

Evidence from archaeological excavations indicates that major games at Olympia likely coalesced around 700 BC. The meticulous work of scholars like Christesen, who analyzed Olympic victor lists, reveals that the reliability of names and details concerning victors only solidified by the sixth century BC. The administration of the games fell to the independent state of Elis. While the Eleans generally managed the games competently, instances of bias and interference were not unknown. Furthermore, contrary to popular modern perceptions, the renowned Olympic truce, the ekecheiría, primarily guaranteed safe passage for visitors; it did not, by itself, quell all conflicts across Greece, nor did it entirely prevent hostilities at Olympia itself.

Olympiad calendar

The historian Ephorus, a figure of the fourth century BC, is often credited with initiating the practice of using Olympiads to count years. However, the formal codification of this epochal system is also attributed to Hippias of Elis, Eratosthenes, or even Timaeus, whom Eratosthenes may have emulated. The Olympic Games, occurring at four-year intervals, provided a natural framework for this system. Ancient historians adopted this method, referring to the games and using the term Olympiad to denote the four-year period between them. Prior to this, Greek states relied on their own local dating systems, which often led to chronological confusion. Eratosthenes, for instance, calculated the date of a solar eclipse mentioned by Diodorus as occurring in the third year of the 113th Olympiad, placing the first year of the first Olympiad in 765 BC. Despite these efforts, scholarly disagreement persists regarding the precise commencement date of the games.

According to the accounts of the later Greek traveler Pausanias, who visited Olympia in the second century AD, the sole event at the inaugural games was the stadion, a straightforward sprint race covering approximately 190 meters (620 feet). The very word "stadium" is derived from this foundational event.

Early history

The exedra, a semicircular recess reserved for judges at Olympia, situated on the southern embankment of the stadium. It is from this very spot that the Olympic flame is traditionally passed to the first torchbearer of the upcoming Olympic Games.

Control over the sacred sanctuary of Olympia, and by extension the games themselves, was a prize sought by various factions for reasons of prestige and political leverage. Pausanias recounts that in 668 BC, Pheidon of Argos, acting on behalf of the town of Pisa, seized control of the sanctuary from the town of Elis. Pheidon then personally presided over the games for that year, only for Elis to regain control the following year.

The origins of Greek sports can also be traced to a conceptual shift where physical exertion, initially tied to Paleolithic hunting practices, evolved into a more socially structured and celebrated function, eventually becoming sport. The Greeks, in particular, distinguished themselves through their creation of grand athletic facilities, offering prizes and embracing nudity, which underscored their ideal of harmonizing a fit body with a sharp mind. This ideology and pursuit of athletic excellence have led to theories positing the Greeks as the true inventors of modern sport.

For the first two centuries of their existence, the games held primarily regional religious significance, with participants drawn predominantly from the areas surrounding Olympia. This is reflected in the consistent dominance of athletes from the Peloponnese in the victors' lists. Over time, however, the Olympic Games garnered increasing recognition, evolving into one of the four major Panhellenic Games. These games, held at two- or four-year intervals, were strategically arranged to ensure that at least one major festival occurred annually. The other esteemed Panhellenic Games were the Pythian, Nemean, and Isthmian Games. Yet, the Olympic Games, by virtue of their age and sanctity, always maintained the highest prestige. They were considered one of the two central religious rituals in ancient Greece, the other being the ancient and deeply revered Eleusinian Mysteries.

Participation in the Olympic Games was generally restricted to freeborn Greek men. While women were excluded from competing, they could achieve victory as owners of chariot teams. Scholarly opinions diverge on whether women were permitted to attend the competitions. Some sources suggest a complete exclusion from the sacred precinct, while others, citing Pausanias, indicate that parthenoi (maidens) could spectate, but gynaikes (married women) were relegated to the southern bank of the Alpheios River. The evidence concerning female attendance remains inconclusive. Nevertheless, there is no definitive proof that women were barred from attending other Panhellenic or Panathenaic events.

Imperial period

This detailed model illustrates the site of Olympia, the ancient home of the Olympic Games, as it appeared around 100 BC.

Roman conquest of Greece

Following the Roman conquest of Greece, the Olympic Games continued, though their popularity waned during the pre-Augustan era. This period was characterized by Rome's preoccupation with internal affairs, leading to a degree of neglect of its provinces. The scarcity of victor statues in the Altis and the consistent representation of victors from the immediate vicinity suggest a decline in the games' prominence during this time.

In 86 BC, the Roman general Sulla plundered Olympia and other Greek treasuries to fund his military campaigns. He remains the only Roman known to have committed such an act of violence against Olympia. Sulla himself organized games in 80 BC, coinciding with the 175th Olympiad, to celebrate his victories over Mithridates VI of Pontus. It is reported that only the stadion race was held, as all athletes had been summoned to Rome.

Augustus

Under the reign of Emperor Augustus, the Olympics experienced a revival. Prior to his consolidation of power, Augustus's trusted associate, Marcus Agrippa, undertook the restoration of the damaged Temple of Zeus. In 12 BC, Augustus solicited a financial contribution from King Herod of Judea to support the games.

Following his posthumous deification by the Senate, a statue of Augustus was commissioned for Olympia. Subsequent emperors, also elevated to divine status, similarly had statues erected within the sacred Altis. At Augustus's command, the stadium underwent renovations, and Greek athletics in general received imperial patronage.

Nero

One of the most notorious episodes in Olympic history unfolded during the reign of Emperor Nero. Driven by an ambition to conquer all chariot races at the Panhellenic Games within a single year, he orchestrated the rescheduling of the Olympics of AD 65 (the 211th Olympiad) to AD 67, compelling the four major games hosts to align their schedules. During his participation at Olympia, Nero was famously thrown from his chariot but nonetheless claimed victory. Nero, who fancied himself a talented musician, also introduced contests in music and singing to festivals that previously lacked them, including the Olympics. His victories in these events were, predictably, uncontested, as judges, intimidated by his imperial power, dared not award victory to any other competitor. Following his suicide, the Olympic judges were compelled to refund the bribes Nero had distributed and declared the "Neronian Olympiad" null and void.

Renaissance

The first half of the second century AD marked a period of renewed prosperity for the games under the Philhellenic emperors Hadrian and Antoninus Pius. The Olympics attracted substantial crowds and a multitude of competitors, and the fame of the victors reverberated throughout the Roman Empire. This "renaissance" endured for much of the second century. The festival of Zeus once again became a magnet for "philosophers, orators, artists, religious proselytizers, singers, and all kinds of performers."

Decline

The 3rd century witnessed a discernible decline in the popularity of the games. The victor list compiled by Africanus concludes with the 249th Olympiad (AD 217). However, Moses of Chorene, in his History of Armenia, records a boxing winner from as late as AD 369 (the 287th Olympiad). Inscriptions unearthed from the site also indicate that the games continued beyond 217. Until recently, the last securely dated victor was Publius Asclepiades of Corinth, who won the pentathlon in 241 (the 255th Olympiad). In 1994, the discovery of a bronze plaque bearing the names of victors in combative events, hailing from both mainland Greece and Asia Minor, provided concrete evidence that the Olympic Games continued in an international capacity until at least AD 385 (the 291st Olympiad).

The games persisted even beyond 385 AD. By this time, the site of Olympia had suffered damage from floods and earthquakes, and invasions by barbarian tribes had reached its environs. The last recorded celebration of the games occurred under Theodosius I in 393 AD, at the commencement of the 293rd Olympiad. However, archaeological evidence suggests that some form of athletic contests persisted thereafter.

Location

Olympia over the ages:

An artist's impression of ancient Olympia.

Olympia is situated in the valley of the Alfeiós River (known in Roman times as Alpheus), in the western expanse of the Peloponnese. Today, it lies approximately 18 km (11 miles) from the Ionian Sea, though in antiquity, this distance was likely halved. The sanctuary, originally known as the Altis, was an irregular quadrangular area, measuring over 180 meters (590 feet) on each side, enclosed by a wall except on the north, where it was bounded by Mount Kronos. The Altis was characterized by a somewhat haphazard arrangement of structures, the most significant of which included the Temple of Hera, the Temple of Zeus, the Pelopion, and the prominent site of the great altar of Zeus, where the most substantial sacrifices were performed. The name "Altis" itself is derived from a linguistic corruption of an Ancient Elis word meaning "the grove," reflecting the area's natural wooded character, particularly its abundance of olive and plane trees.

Though uninhabited throughout the year, the site of Olympia became extraordinarily congested during the quadrennial games. There were no permanent lodging facilities for spectators, who, whether wealthy or poor, made do with tents. Ancient visitors often recounted their struggles with the intense summer heat and the persistent presence of flies, a nuisance so significant that sacrifices were offered to Zeus, the "Averter of Flies." It was not until the mid-second century AD, nearly a millennium after the games' inception, that the site's water supply and sanitation systems were finally improved.

But you may say, there are some things disagreeable and troublesome in life. And are there none at Olympia? Are you not scorched? Are you not pressed by a crowd? Are you not without comfortable means of bathing? Are you not wet when it rains? Have you not abundance of noise, clamour, and other disagreeable things? But I suppose that setting all these things off against the magnificence of the spectacle, you bear and endure.

— Epictetus, 1st century AD

Religion and culture

The Discobolus, a celebrated Greek statue from the 5th century BC, depicts a discus thrower. The image shown is a Roman marble replica of the original bronze sculpture, which is now lost.

The ancient Olympics were as much a religious festival as they were an athletic competition. The games were held in honor of the principal Greek deity, Zeus, and it was customary, on the central day of the festival, to offer a sacrifice of one hundred oxen to him. Over time, Olympia evolved into a paramount center for the worship of the head of the Greek pantheon. A magnificent temple, designed by the Greek architect Libon, was erected on the mountaintop. This temple, a prime example of the Doric order, stood as one of the largest of its kind in Greece. The renowned sculptor Pheidias was commissioned to create a colossal statue of Zeus, fashioned from gold and ivory, standing an imposing 42 feet (13 meters) tall. Enshrined on a throne within the temple, this statue achieved renown as one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. As the historian Strabo eloquently described:

• The glory of the temple persisted... on account both of the festal assembly and of the Olympian Games, in which the prize was a crown and which were regarded as sacred, the greatest games in the world. The temple was adorned by its numerous offerings, which were dedicated there from all parts of Greece.

Artistic expression was an integral component of the Olympic Games. Sculptors, poets, painters, and various artisans converged at Olympia to exhibit their creations, transforming the festival into a vibrant artistic competition. Poets were commissioned to compose epinikia, victory odes in praise of the Olympic victors. These songs, passed down through generations, often endured far longer than any other form of commemoration. Pausanias even claimed that the destroyed Sicilian polis of Naxos would have faded into obscurity if not for its four-time Olympic champion, Tisandros.

Pierre de Coubertin, a pivotal figure in the revival of the Olympic Games, envisioned a modern spectacle that would emulate the ancient traditions in every aspect. This vision included an artistic competition, mirroring the ancient practice, to be held every four years in conjunction with the Olympic Games. This aspiration was realized at the Athens Olympics of 1896.

Politics

The Parthenon in Athens, a symbol of the intellectual and cultural prowess of one of the leading city-states of the ancient world.

The political landscape of ancient Greece began to crystallize around the concept of the city-state, or polis, during the 8th century BC. Each polis was a self-contained political entity, a distinct community with its own governance and identity. While these city-states shared a common pantheon of gods and a rich body of myths and legends, their individual cults and sanctuaries fostered unique religious observances and calendars. The close proximity of these independent entities inevitably led to competition for scarce resources, fostering a climate of frequent, though not constant, conflict. Simultaneously, these city-states recognized the necessity of engaging in trade, forming military alliances, and fostering cultural exchange. This created a complex, dichotomous relationship: interdependence on one hand, and fierce rivalry on the other. It was within this intricate political framework that the Olympic Games emerged as a crucial venue for peaceful competition among the city-states.

From the 8th century BC onwards, the expansion of Greek influence through the establishment of colonies across the Mediterranean and the Black Sea introduced new dynamics. While existing cults and sanctuaries reinforced a sense of shared identity, the increasing contact with non-Greek populations necessitated a more refined definition of what it meant to be Greek. This self-definition was increasingly based on a common language, a shared heritage of myths and legends, collective religious practices, and a deep appreciation for athletic festivals, which served as vital unifying forces. Consequently, a select few religious festivals transcended local boundaries to acquire a panhellenic character, open to all Greek city-states. The Olympic Games, being the most ancient and prestigious among these, held a particularly significant role. A body of officials, known as Hellanodikai, was established to verify the city-state of origin and the Hellenic identity of all competitors, ensuring the integrity of the games.

The expansion of Greek colonies during the 6th and 5th centuries BC is frequently linked to the success of Olympic athletes. Pausanias, for instance, narrates the founding of Cyrene around 630 BC by settlers from Thera with the support of Sparta. This support included the loan of Chionis, a three-time Olympic champion. The allure of associating with an Olympic victor proved instrumental in attracting settlers to these new colonies, thereby maintaining cultural and political ties with the city-states in proximity to Olympia. Thus, Hellenic culture and the Olympic Games spread in tandem, with Olympia retaining its central importance.

Olympic truce

During the period of the Olympic Games, a sacred truce, or ekecheiría, was rigorously observed. Three official runners, known as spondophoroi, were dispatched from Elis to the participating city-states, announcing the commencement of the truce. This sacred period prohibited the movement of armies into Olympia and suspended legal disputes and the imposition of the death penalty. While the truce was generally respected, its primary purpose was to ensure the safe transit of athletes and spectators. Thucydides records an instance where the Spartans were denied entry to the games, and the violators of the truce were fined 2,000 minae for their assault on the city of Lepreum during the ekecheiría. The Spartans contested the fine, asserting that the truce had not yet officially commenced.

The Olympic Games faced a significant challenge during the protracted Peloponnesian War, a conflict primarily waged between Athens and Sparta, but which ultimately involved nearly every Hellenic city-state. During this tumultuous period, the Olympics continued to serve as a venue for the proclamation of alliances and the offering of sacrifices to the gods in supplication for victory.

While a martial truce was maintained by the participating city-states, the political arena remained a battleground. The Olympic Games had evolved into the most influential athletic and cultural stage in ancient Greece, and arguably in the entire ancient world. Consequently, the games became a potent vehicle for city-states to promote their own agendas and influence. This led to an environment rife with political intrigue and controversy. For example, the Greek historian Pausanias describes the predicament of the athlete Sotades:

Sotades at the ninety-ninth Festival was victorious in the long race and proclaimed a Cretan, as in fact he was. But at the next Festival he made himself an Ephesian, being bribed to do so by the Ephesian people. For this act he was banished by the Cretans.

Events

Three runners are depicted on an Attic black-figured Panathenaic prize amphora, dating from 332–333 BC, now housed in the British Museum.

The events at the ancient Olympics, with their introduction dates:

Olympiad Year Event first introduced
1st 776 BC Stade
14th 724 BC Diaulos
15th 720 BC Long-distance race (Dolichos)
18th 708 BC Pentathlon, wrestling
23rd 688 BC Boxing (pygmachia)
25th 680 BC Four horse chariot race (tethrippon)
33rd 648 BC Horse race (keles), pankration
37th 632 BC Boys' stade and wrestling
38th 628 BC Boys' pentathlon (discontinued same year)
41st 616 BC Boys' boxing
65th 520 BC Hoplite race (hoplitodromos)
70th 500 BC Mule-cart race (apene)
71st 496 BC Mare horse race (calpe)
84th 444 BC Mule-cart race (apene) and mare horse race (calpe), both discontinued
93rd 408 BC Two-horse chariot race (synoris)
96th 396 BC Competition for heralds and trumpeters
99th 384 BC Tethrippon for horse over one year
128th 268 BC Chariot for horse over one year
131st 256 BC Race for horses older than one year
145th 200 BC Pankration for boys

Beginning with what was likely a single foot race, the Olympic program gradually expanded to encompass twenty-three contests, although no more than twenty were held at any single Olympiad. With few exceptions, participation in most events was exclusively for male athletes. Women, however, were permitted to participate indirectly by entering horses in the equestrian events. Youth competitions were introduced as early as 632 BC. Our understanding of how these events were conducted largely stems from the vibrant depictions of athletes found on numerous vases, particularly those from the Archaic and Classical periods. Competitors had access to two dedicated gymnasia for their training: the Xystos (meaning 'scraped'), an open colonnade or running track, used by runners and pentathletes, and the Tetragono, designated for wrestlers and boxers.

Ancient Greek athletes are depicted wearing the perizoma (loincloth) while training.

Initially, a loincloth known as the perizoma was worn by athletes during the ancient Olympic Games. Archaeological evidence from the late sixth century BC shows athletes sporting this garment during competitions. For the majority of the games' history, however, events were performed in the nude, a practice the Greeks believed distinguished them from non-Greeks. Pausanias attributes the first naked runner to Orsippus, the winner of the stadion race in 720 BC, who purportedly shed his garment deliberately, finding it easier to run unencumbered. The 5th-century BC historian Thucydides credits the Spartans with popularizing the custom of athletes "publicly stripping and anointing themselves with oil in their gymnastic exercises." He further notes that "formerly, even in the Olympic contests, the athletes who contended wore belts across their middles; and it is but a few years since that the practice ceased."

Running

A section of the stone starting line at Olympia, featuring a groove for each foot.

The sole event recorded at the first thirteen Olympic Games was the stade, a foot race covering a straight course of just over 192 meters (630 feet).

The diaulos (literally "double pipe"), a race equivalent to two stades, is documented as having been introduced at the 14th Olympiad in 724 BC. It is believed that competitors ran in lanes, marked with lime or gypsum, for the length of a stade, then turned around designated posts (kampteres), before returning to the starting line. The philosopher Xenophanes famously wrote, "Victory by speed of foot is honored above all."

A third foot race, the dolichos ("long race"), was added in the subsequent Olympiad. The exact distance of this race is subject to differing accounts; it appears to have comprised between twenty and twenty-four laps of the track, spanning roughly 7.5 to 9 kilometers (4.7 to 5.6 miles), although it's possible it referred to lengths of the track rather than laps, thus covering half the distance.

The final running event to be incorporated into the Olympic program was the hoplitodromos, or "hoplite race," introduced in 520 BC. Traditionally held as the final race of the games, competitors ran either a single or double diaulos (approximately 400 or 800 meters, 0.25 or 0.5 miles) while clad in full military armor. The hoplitodromos was conceived as a simulation of a war tactic, where soldiers would charge in full armor to surprise the enemy.

Combat

A scene from the Palaestra, depicted on an Attic red-figure plate from circa 520–510 BC.

Wrestling (pale) is recorded as being introduced at the 18th Olympiad. Victory was achieved by executing three successful throws, defined as bringing the opponent's body, hip, back, or shoulder (and possibly knee) into contact with the ground. If both competitors fell simultaneously, no throw was counted. Unlike modern Greco-Roman wrestling, tripping was likely permitted.

A pankration scene: the pankratiast on the right attempts to gouge his opponent's eye, an action met with intervention from the umpire. This detail is from an Attic red-figure kylix dating to circa 490–480 BC, housed in the British Museum. Pankratiasts are shown fighting under the watchful eyes of a judge in this side B depiction of a Panathenaic prize amphora, circa 500 BC.

Boxing (pygmachia) made its Olympic debut in 688 BC, with the boys' event introduced sixty years later. The rules of boxing were attributed to the first Olympic boxing champion, Onomastus of Smyrna. It appears that blows to the body were either not permitted or not commonly employed. The Spartans, who claimed to have invented boxing, quickly abandoned the sport and did not participate in boxing competitions. Initially, boxers wore himantes (singular: himas), strips of leather wrapped around their hands.

The pankration was one of the most popular sports in the ancient Olympic Games. It was introduced in the 33rd Olympiad (648 BC), with the boys' pankration becoming an Olympic event in 200 BC, during the 145th Olympiad. In addition to techniques borrowed from boxing and wrestling, athletes employed kicks, joint locks, and strangulation holds when grappling on the ground. Despite the explicit prohibitions against biting and eye-gouging, the pankration was generally considered less dangerous than boxing. It was a highly esteemed event, with the poet Pindar composing eight odes in praise of pankration victors. A legendary tale from the sport involves Arrhichion of Phigalia, who, in a posthumous victory, "expired at the very moment when his opponent acknowledged himself beaten."

Discus

A discus thrower, depicted on an Attic red-figure kylix from circa 500 BC.

The discus ( diskos ) event bore a strong resemblance to its modern counterpart. While stone and iron diskoi have been discovered, bronze appears to have been the most commonly used material. The precise standardization of the diskos remains unclear, but the most prevalent weight seems to have been around 2 kg (4.4 lb), with a diameter of approximately 21 cm (8.3 inches), closely matching the specifications of the modern discus.

Long jump

An Attic red-figure kylix depicting an athlete holding halteres (jumping weights), dating from the late Archaic Greece.

In the long jump (halma), competitors utilized a pair of weights known as halteres. These weights did not adhere to a fixed design; jumpers typically employed either spherical weights carved from stone to fit the hand or longer lead weights. Scholarly debate exists regarding whether the jump was initiated from a standing start or involved a running approach. Hugh Lee, in his analysis of vase paintings depicting the event, concluded that a short run-up was likely involved.

Pentathlon

Main article: Ancient Olympic pentathlon

The pentathlon was a demanding competition comprising five distinct events: running, long jump, discus throw, javelin throw, and wrestling. The pentathlon is said to have been introduced at the 18th Olympiad in 708 BC. The entire competition was completed within a single day, though the precise method for determining the victor and the order in which the events were conducted remain subjects of uncertainty, with the exception that wrestling concluded the competition.

Equestrian events

Horse racing and chariot racing were considered the most prestigious events in the ancient Olympic Games, largely because only the wealthy could afford the substantial costs associated with maintaining and transporting horses. These races encompassed several disciplines: the four-horse chariot race, the two-horse chariot race, and the horse-and-rider race, where the rider was carefully selected by the horse's owner. The four-horse chariot race was the inaugural equestrian event at the Olympics, introduced in 680 BC. It involved two horses harnessed together under a central yoke, with two additional horses attached via ropes. The two-horse chariot race was introduced later, in 408 BC. The horse-and-rider competition, however, dates back to 648 BC. In these races, Greek riders did not utilize saddles or stirrups (the latter not appearing in Europe until around the 6th century AD), demanding exceptional grip and balance from the rider.

Pausanias reports the institution of a race for carts drawn by a pair of mules, and a trotting race, at the seventieth and seventy-first Festivals, respectively. Both of these events were, however, abolished by decree at the eighty-fourth Festival. The trotting race was specifically for mares, and in the final segment of the course, the riders would dismount and run alongside their mounts.

The chariot races also produced the first female Olympic victor. In these events, the winner was officially recognized as the wealthy benefactor or trainer who sponsored the team, rather than the charioteer (who had to be male). This provision allowed figures like the horse trainer and Spartan princess Cynisca to be recorded as the first female Olympic victors.

Because the benefactor was declared the winner, exceptionally wealthy individuals could enhance their chances of victory by entering multiple teams in the races. According to Plutarch, the record belongs to Alcibiades, who famously entered seven chariots in a single competition, securing first, second, and either third or fourth place simultaneously.

In AD 67, the Roman Emperor Nero participated in a chariot race at Olympia. He was thrown from his chariot and thus unable to complete the race. Nevertheless, he was declared the winner based on the assertion that he would have won had he finished.

Famous athletes

An ancient list displaying Olympic victors from the 75th to the 78th, and from the 81st to the 83rd Olympiads (480–468 BC, 456–448 BC).

  • Running:

  • Combat:

    • Arrhichion (pankratiast, tragically died during his final victorious match in the 54th Olympiad (564 BC), described as "the most famous of all pankratiasts.")
    • Milo of Croton (wrestler, a legendary six-time victor: once as a youth and five times in the men's event)
    • Diagoras of Rhodes (boxing champion in the 79th Olympiad, 464 BC, and his sons Akusilaos and Damagetos, who excelled in boxing and pankration)
    • Timasitheos of Croton (wrestling champion)
    • Theagenes of Thasos (accomplished boxer, pankratiast, and runner)
    • Sostratus of Sicyon (pankratiast, infamous for his brutal finger-breaking technique)
    • Dioxippus (pankratiast, awarded the championship by default in 336 BC when no other competitor dared to face him. Such a victory, known as akoniti (literally "without getting dusty"), remains the only one of its kind recorded in the ancient Olympics for this discipline.)
    • Varastades (boxing champion, Prince and future King of Armenia, recognized as the last known ancient Olympic victor in boxing during the 291st Olympic Games in the 4th century AD)

  • Equestrian:

    • Cynisca of Sparta (owner of a four-horse chariot, the first woman officially listed as an Olympic victor)
    • Pheidolas of Corinth (owner of a mare named Aura ("Breeze"), who won the horse race after throwing her rider at the starting line in 512 BC)
    • Pherenikos ("the most famous racehorse in antiquity," winner in the 470s BC)
    • Tiberius (charioteer of a four-horse chariot)
    • Nero (charioteer of a ten-horse chariot)

  • Other:

Olympic festivals in other places

Athletic festivals bearing the name "Olympic Games," established in emulation of the original festival at Olympia, emerged over time in various locations throughout the Greek world. Some of these are known to us only through inscriptions and coinage, while others, such as the Olympic festival at Antioch, achieved considerable renown. Following the establishment of these derivative Olympic festivals, the original great Olympic festival itself was sometimes identified in inscriptions by the addition of Pisa.

It's a lot to digest, isn't it? All that striving, the glory, the sheer effort. They certainly knew how to put on a show. Though, I suspect their definition of "safe passage" during the truce was a tad more flexible than ours.