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English Overseas Possessions

Right. You want to know about the territories the Kingdom of England once held. Don't expect a rosy narrative; history, like most things, is a messy affair.

"English Empire" redirects here. For post-1707 possessions, see British Empire. For Plantagenet territories, see Angevin Empire.

Let's be clear: the English overseas possessions, sometimes referred to rather grandly as the "English Empire," were a collection of lands acquired by the Kingdom of England before 1707. That was the year the Acts of Union decided to merge England with Scotland, creating the Kingdom of Great Britain. After that, it all became a much larger, and arguably more complicated, affair – the British Empire.

The earliest ventures, naturally, were closer to home. Ireland was the first to feel the English boot, a persistent thorn in the side that would continue to fester for centuries. Then came the age of exploration, spurred by monarchs like Henry VII of England and his granddaughter, Elizabeth I. But it wasn't until James VI of Scotland inherited the English throne in 1603, ruling as James I, that permanent overseas settlements truly began to take root.

North America became a prime target. Jamestown, Virginia, established in 1607, was one of the first, despite being in territory already claimed by the Spanish. The West Indies followed, and in Asia, the English established "factories" – essentially trading posts – in the East Indies, such as Bantam, and later in the Indian subcontinent, starting with Surat. The construction of Fort St George on the Indian coast in 1639 marked a more fortified presence. Even marriage alliances played a role; in 1661, King Charles II's union with Catherine of Braganza brought Tangier in North Africa and Bombay in India into English hands as part of her dowry.

In North America, Newfoundland and Virginia were the initial hubs. The 17th century saw a flurry of activity: Maine, Plymouth, New Hampshire, Salem, Massachusetts, Massachusetts Bay, Nova Scotia, Connecticut, New Haven, Maryland, and Rhode Island and Providence were all established. The English weren't shy about taking what they wanted, either. In 1664, they seized New Netherland and New Sweden from the Dutch, re-christening them New York and New Jersey, and absorbing parts of what would become Delaware and Pennsylvania.

Origins

A replica of Cabot's ship the Matthew

The Kingdom of England, as a distinct entity, really solidifies its identity with Æthelstan in 927. Before that, it was a different sort of patchwork. During the House of Knýtlinga's rule (1013-1042), England was part of a larger, more fluid personal union that stretched into Scandinavia. Then came the Norman conquest of England in 1066. William the Conqueror, Duke of Normandy, brought his own continental ambitions with him, making the Duchy a Crown land of the English throne. For centuries, English kings held significant territories in France due to this connection. The Angevin Empire, under the Plantagenet dynasty, was a vast collection of lands across the British Isles and France. This continental entanglement, however, inevitably led to conflict. The Hundred Years' War (1337-1453) saw England fight to maintain its French holdings. By the war's end, only the Pale of Calais remained, and even that was lost in 1558. The Channel Islands, however, still cling to their historical ties to the English Crown, a persistent echo of those continental ambitions.

Ireland

The expansion into Ireland began early, around 1169, with the Norman invasion of Ireland. Thousands of English and Welsh settlers followed, establishing English dominion. Friedrich Engels famously called Ireland the "first English colony." For centuries, the English monarch claimed the Lordship of Ireland, but actual control was often confined to a region known as The Pale. Much of Munster, Ulster, and Connaught remained outside English authority until the Tudors and Stuarts decided to assert more direct control. The Tudor monarchs initiated the plantations of Ireland in the 16th century, settling Protestant colonists, particularly in King's and Queen's Counties (now County Offaly and County Laois) in 1556. A joint-stock plantation was attempted near Cork city in the late 1560s. The 17th century saw the significant Plantation of Ulster, bringing thousands of Scottish and English settlers to that province. English authority in Ireland was a long, drawn-out struggle, only fully consolidated when Ireland was incorporated into the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland in 1801.

New World Beginnings

The age of discovery, kicked off by Christopher Columbus's westward voyages in 1492, was a catalyst. He landed in the West Indies, mistaking them for Asia and deeming the indigenous peoples "Indians." The Spanish, driven by a lust for riches, found gold but also a vast population to exploit. The Portuguese and Spanish success spurred King Henry VII of England to commission John Cabot in 1497 to find a westward route to Asia – the elusive North West Passage. Cabot reached Newfoundland, believing he'd found Asia, but made no attempt at settlement. His subsequent voyage in 1498 vanished.

Meanwhile, Spain was busy carving up the Americas. The Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire (1529-21) by Hernán Cortés and the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire revealed the immense wealth and complex societies of the New World, transforming Europe's understanding and Spain into a global power, especially after the discovery of vast silver deposits.

England, having broken with Catholic Spain through the English Reformation, found itself in conflict. Elizabeth I sanctioned privateers like Hawkins and Drake to harass Spanish shipping in West Africa and the Americas. Writers like Richard Hakluyt and John Dee began advocating for England to establish its own overseas empire, a daunting task with Spain already dominant in the Americas and Portugal holding sway in Africa and Asia. The French were also making inroads in North America, settling the Saint Lawrence River.

The First English Overseas Colonies

The initial wave of English overseas colonization, ironically, started not in the Americas, but in Ireland with the plantations of Ireland following the Tudor conquest of Ireland. A specific joint-stock colony was established in the late 1560s near Cork city. Many involved in these Irish ventures later turned their attention to North America, particularly a group known as the West Country men.

The first attempts at permanent English settlements in North America occurred in the last quarter of the 16th century, during Queen Elizabeth's reign. This was a generation before the Plantation of Ulster and shortly after the Munster plantations. Driven by a desire for land, trade, and religious freedom, English colonial activity surged. In the 17th century, the West Indies actually attracted more English emigrants than North America.

Queen Elizabeth

Early Claims

The quest for the North West Passage led Martin Frobisher on voyages starting in 1576. He landed on Baffin Island, conducting the first recorded Church of England service on North American soil. He claimed territory on behalf of Queen Elizabeth, even reaching Greenland and claiming it for England in 1578.

Concurrently, between 1577 and 1580, Sir Francis Drake was circumnavigating the globe. He claimed Elizabeth Island off Cape Horn and another Elizabeth Island in the Straits of Magellan for his queen. In 1579, he claimed a vast swathe of California as "New Albion". These were ambitious claims, but they remained just that – claims, without any follow-up settlements.

In 1578, Humphrey Gilbert, Drake's half-brother, received a patent for overseas exploration. His initial attempt to reach the West Indies and establish a colony failed. In 1583, he sailed to Newfoundland, formally taking possession of St John's and surrounding lands, though he left no settlers. He did not survive the return voyage.

The First Overseas Settlements

On March 25, 1584, Sir Walter Raleigh was granted a charter by Queen Elizabeth I to colonize an area of North America named Virginia in her honour. This charter stipulated a seven-year deadline for settlement. Raleigh and Elizabeth envisioned the venture as a source of New World riches and a base for privateering against Spain. Raleigh himself never set foot in North America, though he did lead expeditions to South America in search of the mythical city of El Dorado. Instead, he dispatched others to found the ill-fated Roanoke Colony, forever known as the "Lost Colony."

On December 31, 1600, Elizabeth I granted a charter to the East India Company, officially known as "The Governor and Company of Merchants of London Trading into the East Indies." This company established its first trading post in the East Indies at Bantam on Java, followed by others, beginning with Surat, on the coasts of what are now India and Bangladesh.

Most of the early English colonies in North America and the West Indies were proprietary colonies. These were governed by Proprietors appointed under Royal charters granted to individuals or joint stock companies. Notable early examples include the Virginia Company, which established the successful settlements at Jamestown in 1607 and Bermuda (unofficially in 1609, officially in 1612, with its administration later transferred to the Somers Isles Company). The Newfoundland Company also settled Cuper's Cove near St John's, Newfoundland in 1610. Colonies like Rhode Island, Connecticut, and Massachusetts Bay were charter colonies, established through land patents from the Crown. Some charters even extended claims westward to the Pacific Ocean, based on Francis Drake's explorations, a provision found in the charters for Connecticut, Massachusetts Bay, and Virginia.

Bermuda, still a British Overseas Territory, owes its settlement to the wreck of the Virginia Company's flagship, the Sea Venture, in 1609. The town of St George's, founded in 1612, is considered the oldest continuously inhabited English settlement in the New World. Bermuda played a significant role in the development of English and British empires, contributing to maritime commerce, continental and West Indian settlement, and naval power through its privateers.

Between 1640 and 1660, the West Indies were the primary destination for English emigrants, receiving over two-thirds of those heading to the New World. By 1650, the Caribbean held 44,000 English settlers, significantly more than the 12,000 on the Chesapeake or the 23,000 in New England. Barbados was the most substantial English settlement during this period.

In 1660, King Charles II established the Royal African Company, a venture deeply involved in the Atlantic slave trade, headed by his brother, James, Duke of York. As mentioned, Charles II's marriage to Catherine of Braganza brought him Tangier and Bombay. Tangier, however, proved too costly and was abandoned in 1684.

Following the English seizure of Fort Amsterdam from the Dutch in 1664, England took control of New Netherland, including New Amsterdam. This acquisition, formalized in 1667, contributed to the Second Anglo–Dutch War. New Netherland was renamed the Province of New York. The English also gained control of the former New Sweden, which had become a Dutch possession and was later incorporated into Pennsylvania. Although the Dutch briefly recaptured New Netherland in 1673, they ceded it permanently under the Treaty of Westminster in 1674.

Council of Trade and Foreign Plantations

• Main article: Board of Trade

In 1621, facing economic difficulties due to a decline in overseas trade, King James I instructed his Privy Council to form a committee to investigate the causes. This ad hoc group, known as "The Lords of the Committee of the Privy Council appointed for the consideration of all matters relating to Trade and Foreign Plantations," eventually evolved into the Board of Trade, which has operated with few interruptions since its inception. This committee quickly became involved in promoting profitable enterprises in English possessions, particularly the production of tobacco and sugar.

The Americas

List of English possessions in North America

Captain John Smith, "Admiral of New England"

Plaque at St John's marking Humphrey Gilbert's landing there, 1583.

List of English possessions in the West Indies

  • Barbados: First visited by an English ship in 1605, settlement began in 1625. It quickly became a major English settlement in the Americas.
  • Saint Kitts: Settled by the English in 1623, followed by the French. The indigenous Kalinago were massacred, and the island partitioned. It frequently changed hands between English and French control before becoming permanently British in 1783.
  • Nevis: Settled in 1628.
  • Providence Island colony: Settled by the Providence Island Company in 1629 and captured by Spain in 1641.
  • Montserrat: Settled in 1632.
  • Antigua: Settled in 1632 by English colonists from Saint Kitts.
  • The Bahamas: Largely deserted until 1648 when the Eleutheran Adventurers settled on Eleuthera.
  • Anguilla: First colonized by English settlers from St Kitts in 1650. Briefly held by the French before being returned to England in 1667.
  • Jamaica: Conquered from the Spanish in 1655.
  • Barbuda: Colonized by the English in 1666.
  • The Cayman Islands: Visited by Sir Francis Drake in 1586. Informally settled by pirates and others in the 17th century. England gained control with Jamaica in 1670.

List of English claims in Central and South America

English possessions in India and the East Indies

Fort St George, Madras, the first English fortress in India.

English possessions in Africa

English Tangier, 1670. James Island and Fort Gambia.

English possessions in Europe

Transformation into British Empire

The Treaty of Union of 1706, effective from 1707, merged England and Scotland into Great Britain. This meant that English companies and colonies effectively became British colonies.

List of English possessions which are still British Overseas Territories

Timeline

There. That's the gist of it. A sprawling, often brutal, history of acquisition and control. Don't expect me to wax poetic about it. It is what it is.