European Integration

The process of political, economic, social, and cultural integration of states in and around Europe is a complex, multifaceted phenomenon, primarily embodied by the European Union and its expansive network of policies. This integration transcends mere legal and economic alignment, weaving in elements of regional cooperation, cultural assimilation, and, in some instances, a degree of centralisation. While the European Union stands as the most prominent vehicle for this integration, the concept itself is far more ancient, echoing through the annals of history.

History

The very notion of a unified Europe can be traced back to antiquity, with the Roman Empire forging a vast territorial and cultural entity across Europe and the Mediterranean. This imperial endeavor, though ultimately fragmented, left an indelible mark, seeding the idea of a shared European destiny. The echoes of this ambition resounded through subsequent attempts at unity, from the ambitious but often fractured Holy Roman Empire to the mercantile prowess of the Hanseatic League, and the sweeping, albeit ephemeral, conquests of the Napoleonic Empire. These historical precedents, each in their own way, illustrated the enduring appeal, and inherent challenges, of European consolidation.

The cataclysm of the First World War served as a brutal, yet potent, catalyst for re-evaluating the fractured state of Europe. The sheer scale of destruction and loss reignited discussions about the necessity of political cooperation and unity to prevent future conflagrations. This period saw the emergence of prominent figures and movements dedicated to this cause. Visionaries like Richard von Coudenhove-Kalergi, with his Pan-Europa movement, and statesman Aristide Briand, who championed a federation of European nations, articulated distinct, yet convergent, paths toward a more integrated continent. Their efforts, though often stymied by the prevailing nationalistic fervor and the subsequent rise of totalitarian regimes, laid crucial groundwork for future endeavors.

The post-World War II era marked a decisive turning point. The continent, ravaged by conflict and poised on the brink of a new geopolitical order, embraced integration with a renewed sense of urgency. Winston Churchill's famous 1946 call for a "United States of Europe" resonated deeply, capturing the prevailing sentiment that only through closer cooperation could Europe secure lasting peace and prosperity. This period witnessed the genesis of groundbreaking theories attempting to explain and guide this unprecedented process. Scholars began to categorize integration into phases, from "proto-integration" that explored initial concepts, to theories that explained the mechanics of integration, analyzed its governance structures, and ultimately, sought to understand the construction of the European Union itself. This evolution reflected a shift from viewing European integration as a unique, sui generis phenomenon, to incorporating broader frameworks from international relations and comparative politics theories.

Civil society also played a vital role, with organizations like the Union of European Federalists and the European Movement International actively advocating for deeper integration and fostering a sense of shared European identity. The intricate web of agreements, memberships, and policies that emerged over the decades demonstrates the multi-layered and evolving nature of this integration process.

Ideas of European unity before 1948

The historical tapestry of European integration is rich with threads of unity woven long before the formal establishment of modern institutions. The Roman Empire, in its sprawling dominion, laid a conceptual foundation for a unified Europe and Mediterranean. Later attempts to claim succession to this imperial legacy, such as the Holy Roman Empire, the Hanseatic League, and the Napoleonic Empire, while ultimately failing to create lasting unity, nevertheless kept the idea of a cohesive Europe alive. The Peace of Westphalia, which redefined state sovereignty, and subsequent national unifications like those of Germany and Italy, alongside attempts to forge a shared identity in regions like the Balkans, also contributed to the complex discourse surrounding European coherence. The Latin Monetary Union, a practical step toward economic coordination, further illustrated the potential benefits of cross-border cooperation.

The devastation of the First World War prompted a resurgence of these ideas. In the interwar period, a proliferation of international organizations emerged, fostering collaboration among political parties with shared ideologies. From the radical left of the Comintern and the Labour and Socialist International, to the centrist Radical and Democratic Entente and the agrarian Green International, and the centre-right International Secretariat of Democratic Parties inspired by Christianity, these bodies facilitated cross-border dialogue. Within these ideological blocs, calls for European-level institutions began to surface.

Richard von Coudenhove-Kalergi was a leading proponent of a conservative vision of European unity, articulated in his 1923 Pan-Europa manifesto. The first Paneuropean Congress in Vienna in 1926 drew significant attention, attracting thousands of members. Their vision was distinctly Christian, implicitly Catholic, and aimed at forging a united Europe. In 1933, British civil servant and future minister Arthur Salter published his influential book, The United States of Europe.

Conversely, Leon Trotsky, the Soviet commissar, advocated in 1923 for a "Soviet United States of Europe," envisioning a continent united under communist principles.

The liberal-democratic parties, particularly in France, also made significant strides. In 1927, Émile Borel, a prominent figure in the Radical Party and founder of the Radical International, established a French Committee for European Cooperation, inspiring similar committees in twenty other nations. While this remained largely an elite endeavor, French Prime Ministers Aristide Briand and Édouard Herriot took more concrete steps. Briand's 1929 speech to the League of Nations proposed a federation of European nations based on solidarity. In 1930, he presented a Memorandum on the organization of a system of European Federal Union. Herriot's 1931 book, The United States of Europe, further popularized the idea. The Belgian and Luxembourgish customs and monetary union. served as a practical, albeit small-scale, template.

Support for these proposals came from various quarters. Economists like John Maynard Keynes, recognizing the destabilizing effects of economic nationalism, lent their voices to the cause. The French political scientist Bertrand Jouvenel recalled a widespread post-1924 sentiment favoring European union for common prosperity. Spanish philosopher Ortega y Gasset eloquently captured this mood, stating that "European unity is no fantasy, but reality itself." Greek Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos echoed this sentiment in 1929, suggesting that a "United States of Europe" would possess the strength to foster prosperity not only within its borders but globally.

During the Interwar period, Polish statesman Józef Piłsudski envisioned a federation he termed Międzymorze, or "Intermarium," a Polish-centric counterpoint to German notions of Mitteleuropa. However, the escalating crises of the Great Depression, the rise of fascism and communism, and the outbreak of World War II tragically derailed these nascent movements. The subsequent descent into dictatorship and civil war in many European nations underscored the fragility of democratic institutions and the urgent need for a more robust framework for peace. Yet, the ideals championed by social democrats, liberals, and Christian democrats during these turbulent times would find fertile ground in the post-war era, as many of their proponents returned to power, poised to implement their long-held remedies for continental instability.

The period of Nazi Germany's dominance over much of Europe during World War II (1939–1945), with its chilling plans for a "New Order" ([New Order (Nazism)], Greater Germanic Reich, Generalplan Ost), served as a stark reminder of the dangers of unchecked aggression and ideological extremism. The ultimate defeat of Nazism created a vacuum, but also an opportunity for a fundamental reordering of the continent.

In the immediate aftermath of World War II, a profound shift occurred in the political landscape of democratic European nations. The devastating consequences of extreme nationalism fostered a widespread desire for unity and reconciliation. Winston Churchill, in his seminal 1946 speech at the University of Zürich, eloquently articulated this sentiment, calling for a United States of Europe. While his vision was expansive, it's crucial to note that he initially envisioned Britain as a guarantor and partner rather than an integral part of this new European entity, seeing it as distinct from the Commonwealth of Nations to which Britain belonged. He stated: "We British have our own Commonwealth of Nations... And why should there not be a European group which could give a sense of enlarged patriotism and common citizenship to the distracted peoples of this turbulent and mighty continent and why should it not take its rightful place with other great groupings in shaping the destinies of men? France and Germany must take the lead together. Great Britain, the British Commonwealth of Nations, mighty America[,] and I trust Soviet Russia—for then indeed all would be well—must be the friends and sponsors of the new Europe and must champion its right to live and shine. We must build a kind of United States of Europe. In this way only, will hundreds of millions of toilers be able to regain the simple joys and hopes which make life worth living."

Theories of Integration

The academic discourse surrounding European integration is as dynamic and multifaceted as the process itself. Scholars like Thomas Diez and Antje Wiener have identified distinct phases in the evolution of integration theory. Initially, a period of "proto-integration theory" laid the normative groundwork, focusing on preventing war and fostering regional unity. This was followed by theories aimed at explaining integration as it unfolded, particularly the rise of supranational institutions. Later, theories shifted to analyzing governance, grappling with the complex, multi-layered nature of the EU's political system. Most recently, the focus has broadened to constructing the EU, incorporating critical and constructivist perspectives to understand its deepening and widening. This evolution reflects a move from viewing European integration as a unique, sui generis phenomenon to integrating it within broader international relations and comparative politics theories.

Proto-integration period

The fundamental question driving early integration theories was how to avert devastating wars between nation-states. Federalism and functionalism proposed curbing the power of the nation-state, while transactionalism sought to stabilize the existing system through increased cross-border interactions. Early federalism was less a detached academic pursuit and more a passionate political movement. Figures like Altiero Spinelli, who penned the influential Ventotene Manifesto advocating for a federal Europe, and thinkers like Paul Valéry, who envisioned a unified European civilization, were central to this vision. Federalists saw a regional supranational authority as the solution to the inherent limitations of state sovereignty.

David Mitrany, a key proponent of functionalism, also identified state sovereignty as a primary obstacle to peace. However, he was skeptical of regional integration, viewing it as merely a replication of the flawed state model. Transactionalism, on the other hand, posited that increased cross-border exchanges would naturally foster regional integration and, consequently, reduce the likelihood of conflict.

First phase: explaining integration, 1960s onwards

As European integration gained momentum, particularly with the establishment of the European Coal and Steel Community, theories emerged to explain this novel process. Neofunctionalism, building upon functionalist ideas, was developed by Ernst B. Haas in 1958 and further elaborated by Leon Lindberg in 1963. This theory highlights the concept of "spillover," where integration in one sector inevitably leads to further integration in others. Neofunctionalism successfully explained the transition from the European Coal and Steel Community to the European Economic Community, established by the Treaties of Rome in 1957. It predicted a gradual transfer of loyalties from the national level to the supranational level as integration deepened.

In contrast, Intergovernmentalism, championed by Stanley Hoffmann in response to the Empty Chair Crisis of the 1960s, emphasized the role of national governments. Later iterations, particularly Liberal Intergovernmentalism developed by Andrew Moravcsik in the 1980s, argued that while supranational institutions facilitate integration, ultimate control remains with member states. The ongoing debate between neofunctionalism and liberal intergovernmentalism remains central to understanding the dynamics of European integration.

Second phase: analyzing governance, 1980s onwards

The evolving empirical reality of European integration necessitated new theoretical lenses. The second generation of integration theorists turned their attention to the crucial role of institutions in shaping both the integration process and the development of European governance. This phase saw a richer integration of perspectives from comparative politics alongside traditional international relations theories. Scholars began to probe the fundamental question of what kind of polity the European Union truly was and how it operated. The concept of multi-level governance emerged as a key framework for understanding the complex interplay of actors and decision-making processes across different levels of governance within the EU.

Third phase: constructing the EU, 1990s onwards

The 1990s witnessed a resurgence of interest in international relations theories, particularly from critical and constructivist perspectives, marking the third phase of integration theory. These approaches sought to conceptualize the processes of widening and deepening integration by incorporating insights from social constructivism, post-structuralism, critical theory, and feminist theory. This phase acknowledged the importance of ideas, norms, and social interactions in shaping European integration, moving beyond purely rationalist or institutionalist explanations.

Citizens' Organizations Calling for Further Integration

Beyond the institutional and academic realms, a vibrant network of citizens' organizations has consistently advocated for a more federal Europe. Over the years, groups such as the Union of European Federalists, the Young European Federalists, the European Movement International, the European Federalist Party, and Volt Europa have championed deeper integration. The Union of European Federalists (UEF), a non-governmental organization with over 50 years of campaigning experience, comprises 20 constituent organizations and actively engages at European, national, and local levels. The European Movement International serves as a lobbying force, coordinating various associations and national councils to promote European integration and disseminate information. The European Federalist Party is a pan-European political entity dedicated to advancing European federalism and participating in elections across the continent, with national sections in 15 countries. Volt Europa, a more recent pan-European movement, also advocates for European federalism and has established a presence in 29 countries, actively participating in elections at all levels.

Overlap of Membership in Various Agreements

The intricate tapestry of European integration is further illustrated by the overlapping memberships in a multitude of agreements and organizations. While the European Union represents the core of this integration, numerous other entities contribute to the complex web of cooperation.

Common membership of member states of the European Union

Every member state of the European Union is intrinsically involved in a range of European and international organizations, underscoring the depth of their integration. These include membership in the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), the European Political Community (EPC), and the Council of Europe (CoE). Furthermore, EU member states are typically part of specialized European bodies such as the European Civil Aviation Conference (ECAC), the European Organisation for the Safety of Air Navigation (Eurocontrol), and various standardization bodies like the European Committee for Standardization (CEN), the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI), and the European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization (CENELEC).

Economically, all EU members are part of the European Union Customs Union (EUCU) and participate in the Single Euro Payments Area (SEPA). The European Common Aviation Area (ECAA) and the European Higher Education Area (EHEA) further integrate specific sectors. Many EU member states also host or are members of significant European organizations, such as the European Broadcasting Union (EBU) and the Union of European Football Associations (UEFA). They are also integral to the functioning of energy networks through the European Network of Transmission System Operators for Electricity and the European Network of Transmission System Operators for Gas.

The concept of a "Multi-speed Europe" emerges when considering the varying levels of participation in EU integration initiatives by non-EU countries.

Membership in European Union agreements

The degree of integration varies significantly, even among EU member states, due to opt-outs and varying commitments to specific agreements. A core group of EU member states, often referred to as the "Inner Six" – Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands – historically formed the bedrock of integration. Today, a significant number of EU states, 18 in total, have embraced the most comprehensive integration package, encompassing the fifth stage of economic integration (EMU), the Schengen agreement, and the Area of freedom, security and justice (AFSJ). These states are Austria, Belgium, Croatia, Finland, Estonia, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Portugal, Slovakia, Slovenia, and Spain.

The Eurozone, comprising 20 EU states, and the Schengen Area, with 25 participating countries, further highlight these varying levels of commitment. Many non-EU countries also engage with EU integration initiatives, participating in agreements like the Customs Union, the Common Market (EEA), or unilaterally adopting the euro. This creates a complex "mosaic" of integration, where some non-EU states are deeply embedded in specific EU frameworks.

The table provided offers a detailed snapshot of state membership across various key EU agreements, illustrating this complex landscape. It includes EU member states, candidate countries, EEA members, and other European nations, showcasing the diverse forms of cooperation and integration in Europe. Special territorial statuses within EU member states and EFTA countries, alongside opt-outs and enhanced cooperation mechanisms, further add to this complexity.

The concept of a formal "Core Europe Federation" has been discussed but has not materialized, with integration instead progressing through the development of supranational institutions that govern an increasingly wide array of policy areas within "Inner Europe."

Geographic Scope

The definition of "Europe" for the purposes of integration is not strictly confined to geographical boundaries. While the core consists of countries entirely within geographical Europe, it also encompasses transcontinental nations like Russia, Kazakhstan, Georgia, Azerbaijan, and Turkey, whose territories straddle the Europe-Asia divide. Furthermore, countries like Cyprus and Armenia, though geographically located in Asia, are often included due to strong cultural and historical ties to the continent.

Beyond the continent, certain agreements with a European focus extend their reach. The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), while primarily a transatlantic alliance, explicitly includes provisions for the potential accession of "any other European State." Similarly, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) has a broad membership spanning across North America and Asia. The European Broadcasting Union (EBU) and the European Olympic Committees (EOC) also include members from North Africa, the Middle East, and Israel, respectively.

Europe-centered but including countries outside Europe

The integration process, while primarily focused on Europe, demonstrates a willingness to engage with entities beyond its geographical confines. The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), a cornerstone of transatlantic security, explicitly invites the participation of "any other European State." This outward-looking approach is mirrored in the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), whose membership extends across the Northern Hemisphere, including countries in Central Asia and even Mongolia. The European Broadcasting Union (EBU) and the European Olympic Committees (EOC) further illustrate this expansive reach, incorporating members from North Africa, the Middle East, and Israel, respectively, reflecting a broader cultural and media landscape.

Limited to Europe but not to regions within it

Several organizations operate with a pan-European mandate, without specific regional limitations within the continent. The Council of Europe, the European Free Trade Association (EFTA), the European Communities, and the European Union all encompass a broad European scope.

Limited to regions within geographic Europe

Beyond these overarching structures, numerous regional integration efforts have flourished, fostering intergovernmental cooperation and reducing the likelihood of conflict. These initiatives have not only removed trade barriers but also facilitated the free movement of people, labor, goods, and capital across national borders.

Nordic countries

In the Nordic region, post-World War II cooperation has been robust. The Nordic Council and the Nordic Council of Ministers, established in 1953, provide a forum for collaboration among the governments and parliaments of Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden, along with their autonomous territories. The Nordic Passport Union, implemented in 1958, eliminated passport controls for citizens of these nations, fostering seamless travel.

Baltic Sea region

The Baltic region has seen significant integration efforts. The Baltic Assembly, established in 1990, promotes parliamentary cooperation among Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. The Baltic Free Trade Area (BAFTA), active from 1994 until the Baltic states joined the EU in 2004, aimed to liberalize trade among these nations. The Council of the Baltic Sea States (CBSS), founded in 1992, facilitates intergovernmental cooperation on a range of issues, including economic development, human rights, and environmental safety, involving 12 member states and the European Commission. The EU Strategy for the Baltic Sea Region (EUSBSR), launched in 2009, further reinforces cooperation within this macro-region.

Low Countries region (Benelux)

The Low Countries have a long history of integration, most notably through the Benelux union, an economic and political partnership between Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg. The Benelux Customs Union, signed in 1944, paved the way for the Benelux Economic Union established in 1958, supported by a Benelux Parliament. The earlier Belgium-Luxembourg Economic Union, dating back to 1921, served as a precursor, establishing a single market and fixed currency parity.

Black Sea region

The Black Sea region has witnessed the establishment of several regional organizations since the fall of the Soviet Union. The Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC), founded in 1992, aims to foster peace and prosperity among its 12 member states. The GUAM Organization for Democracy and Economic Development is a group of four post-Soviet states (Georgia, Ukraine, Azerbaijan, and Moldova) dedicated to promoting cooperation, democracy, and integration.

United Kingdom and Ireland

In the United Kingdom and Ireland region, the Good Friday Agreement of 1998 led to the creation of the British–Irish Council in 1999, fostering cooperation among Ireland, the UK, and their constituent parts. The Common Travel Area, established in 1922, guarantees passport-free movement between Ireland, the UK, and the Crown Dependencies. However, the UK's Brexit withdrawal in January 2020 significantly altered the dynamics of integration, with Ireland remaining a staunch EU member while navigating the complexities of its relationship with the UK.

Central Europe

Central Europe boasts several cooperation initiatives. The Visegrád Group, formed in 1991, is a Central European alliance focused on cooperation and integration. The Central European Initiative, established in 1989, serves as a forum for regional cooperation among 18 member states. The Central European Free Trade Agreement (CEFTA), initially formed in 1992, acted as a preparatory ground for EU membership for countries in Central Europe and the Balkans, though its members gradually left as they acceded to the EU. Switzerland and Liechtenstein maintain a long-standing customs union since 1924.

Eastern Europe

The integration of former Eastern Bloc countries into the EU has been a complex process, with ongoing debates about its socioeconomic impacts, including effects on immigration and public support for integration. While economic growth and free movement have been benefits, concerns remain about potential negative consequences for host societies and the long-term integration trajectory. Research suggests that internal migration within the EU is crucial for the success of its economic union.

Danube region

The EU Strategy for the Danube Region, endorsed in 2011, is a macro-regional strategy designed to enhance cooperation among 14 countries along the Danube River, aiming to strengthen regional integration efforts.

Balkans

The Craiova Group, also known as Craiova Four or C4, is a cooperative initiative involving Romania, Bulgaria, Greece, and Serbia, focused on advancing their European integration and fostering economic, transport, and energy cooperation.

Council of Europe

Born from the ashes of World War II and the profound need for reconciliation, the Council of Europe was established in Strasbourg in 1949. Its most significant achievement is the European Convention on Human Rights (1950), establishing the European Court of Human Rights as a vital guardian of human rights and fundamental freedoms across the continent. The Council's work extends to protecting human rights through bodies like the Committee for the Prevention of Torture and promoting social rights via the European Social Charter. Numerous conventions, covering areas from legal assistance and anti-corruption measures to combating money laundering, doping in sport, and internet crime, aim to foster greater legal integration. Cultural cooperation is fostered through the Cultural Convention of 1954 and subsequent agreements on educational recognition and minority language protection. Following the fall of the Berlin Wall, many former communist European nations joined the Council, which now comprises 46 states, effectively encompassing almost the entire European continent, with few exceptions. Integration at this level operates through convention accession and political coordination, guided by the Council's founding principle of achieving greater unity based on shared values of human rights and democracy.

Istanbul Convention

The Istanbul Convention is a key Council of Europe treaty aimed at combating violence against women and domestic violence, further illustrating the organization's commitment to social integration and the protection of fundamental rights.

European Political Community

The European Political Community (EPC) serves as an intergovernmental forum for political and strategic dialogue concerning the future of Europe. Its inaugural summit in Prague in October 2022 brought together 44 European countries, alongside the Presidents of the European Council and the European Commission, signifying a new platform for high-level discussions on European cooperation.

Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe

The Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) is a trans-Atlantic intergovernmental organization dedicated to ensuring stability in Europe. Established as the Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe (CSCE) in 1973 and transformed into its current form in 1995, the OSCE boasts 56 member states across the Northern Hemisphere. Its work is structured across three dimensions: the Politico-Military Dimension, focusing on conflict prevention and resolution; the Economic and Environmental Dimension, addressing threats and providing assistance; and the Human Dimension, promoting respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms.

European Free Trade Association

The European Free Trade Association (EFTA), established in 1960, was conceived as an alternative for European states hesitant to join the EEC. Currently comprising Iceland, Norway, Switzerland, and Liechtenstein, EFTA has seen its founding members, including Austria, Denmark, Portugal, Sweden, and the United Kingdom, leave to join the European Union over time. The revised Vaduz Convention, signed in 2001, continues to govern its operations.

European Broadcasting Union

The European Broadcasting Union (EBU), founded in 1950, is an alliance of public service media organizations. With 112 active members in 54 countries and 30 associate members, the EBU plays a significant role in shaping media landscapes across Europe and beyond. While not directly part of the EU, it has been influenced by supranational legislation and regulation, and has hosted debates for European Commission presidency candidates.

European Patent Convention

The European Patent Convention (EPC), established in 1973, created the European Patent Organisation, a system for granting European patents. As of 2022, 39 states are contracting parties to the EPC, facilitating a unified approach to patent protection across the continent.

European Communities

The genesis of modern European integration lies in the post-World War II era, specifically with the establishment of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) in 1951. This landmark treaty, signed by Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and West Germany, transferred powers over coal and steel production to a common authority. This move was strategically crucial for post-war reconstruction and for pooling resources vital for both economic recovery and preventing future military conflicts. The ECSC fostered transparency and trust among its founding members.

Building on this success, the 1957 Treaty of Rome established two further communities: the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom) and the European Economic Community (EEC). In 1967, the Merger Treaty consolidated the institutions of these three communities, which became collectively known as the European Communities. The Single European Act in 1987 marked a significant revision, formally establishing the single European market and enhancing political cooperation. The founding six states, known as the "inner six," were later joined by Denmark, Ireland, and the United Kingdom in 1973, Greece in 1981, and Portugal and Spain in 1986. The reunification of Germany in 1990 brought East Germany into the fold. Jean Monnet, a pivotal figure in this process, is widely regarded as a principal architect of European integration.

European Union

The European Union (EU), officially established by the Treaty of Maastricht in 1993, is an association of 27 sovereign member states that have pooled certain competences to common institutions. Its foundation rests upon the pre-existing European Economic Community. The original 12 founding members included Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, and the United Kingdom. Subsequent enlargements saw Austria, Finland, and Sweden join in 1995, followed by Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia in 2004. Bulgaria and Romania joined in 2007, and Croatia in 2013. The United Kingdom, after 47 years of membership, withdrew in 2020.

The EU maintains relationships with nations outside its formal membership through various agreements. The stated aim is to foster a "ring of countries" sharing EU ideals and engaging in further integration without necessarily becoming full members. Official candidate states include Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Georgia, North Macedonia, Moldova, Montenegro, Serbia, Turkey, and Ukraine. Applications from Iceland and Switzerland have been withdrawn, while Norway has rejected membership in referendums. Turkey's accession negotiations, begun in 2005, have been suspended since 2019.

The functioning of the EU and its integration process involves its institutions, parliamentarians, judges, commissioners, national governments, and citizens, each playing a distinct role. Theoretical debates continue regarding which actors hold the most significant influence.

Competences

The allocation of competences between the European Union and its member states is a cornerstone of EU law. Certain powers are exclusively vested in the Union for collective decision-making, while others are shared, with the Union acting when member states do not, or supporting member state actions.

Exclusive competence: The Union holds exclusive authority to legislate and conclude international agreements in areas such as the customs union, establishing competition rules for the internal market, monetary policy for euro countries, conservation of marine biological resources under the common fisheries policy, the Common Commercial Policy, and the conclusion of certain international agreements. Member states cannot exercise competence in these areas.
Shared competence: The Union shares competence with member states in crucial areas including the internal market, social policy (as defined in the Treaty), economic, social, and territorial cohesion, agriculture and fisheries (excluding marine resource conservation), environment, consumer protection, transport, trans-European networks, energy, the area of freedom, security and justice, and common public health concerns.
Supporting competence: In areas like research, technological development, and space policy, the Union can undertake actions to support, coordinate, or supplement member states' initiatives. The same applies to development cooperation and humanitarian aid.
Coordination role: The Union coordinates member states' policies and implements supplementary actions in areas such as economic, employment, and social policies, as well as common foreign, security and defence policies.

Economic integration

The EU operates a robust single economic market, with many member states sharing a common currency, the euro. Beyond its borders, the EU engages in extensive economic relationships through the European Economic Area and various customs union agreements.

Free trade area

The creation of the European Economic Community (EEC) dismantled tariffs and quotas among member states, establishing a free trade area. Numerous countries have entered into European Union Association Agreements with FTA provisions, particularly in the Mediterranean region, but also with countries like Chile, Mexico, and South Africa. Balkan states have entered into Stabilisation and Association Agreements (SAA) with similar FTA elements. The Eastern Partnership initiative aims to establish FTAs between the EU and several Eastern European countries.

Customs union

The European Union Customs Union ensures the absence of customs duties on goods traded within its area, encompassing all EU member states. The abolition of internal tariffs was achieved by 1968. Andorra, San Marino, and Turkey are also linked to EU customs unions through specific agreements.

European Single Market

A primary objective of the EU since the Maastricht Treaty in 1992 has been the establishment and maintenance of a single market. This ambitious undertaking guarantees the four basic freedoms: the free movement of goods, services, capital, and people. The European Economic Area (EEA) extends these freedoms to Norway, Iceland, and Liechtenstein, albeit with some exceptions in fisheries and agriculture. Switzerland maintains a distinct relationship through bilateral agreements.

Eurozone

The Eurozone comprises EU member states that have adopted the euro as their currency, representing the third stage of the European Economic and Monetary Union (EMU). Additionally, several non-EU countries have formally adopted the euro through agreements, while others have done so unilaterally. In total, 26 states currently use the euro. The Eurozone officially launched on January 1, 1999, with physical currency introduced in 2002. The original members included Austria, Belgium, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Portugal, and Spain. Subsequent accessions have gradually expanded the Eurozone, with Croatia being the latest member in 2023.

Fiscal union

The concept of a fiscal union within the EU has been a recurring topic of discussion, particularly in the wake of the European debt crisis. While a full fiscal union remains a distant prospect, calls for closer fiscal coordination persist, with some analysts viewing it as a long-term necessity. However, governments have generally resisted proposals for a formal fiscal union or extensive harmonization.

Social and political integration

Education

The ERASMUS programme, launched in 1987, is a cornerstone of academic mobility, fostering free movement within the European academic community. It involves 33 states, including all EU members and several non-EU European countries. The European Higher Education Area (EHEA), developed through the Bologna process and guided by the Lisbon Recognition Convention, aims to harmonize educational systems and ensure mutual recognition of degrees and study periods. This initiative has seen widespread adoption, with 47 member states currently participating.

Research

Europe hosts numerous multinational research institutions, fostering collaboration across borders. The EIROforum initiative includes organizations like the European Space Agency, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, and CERN. Other significant research collaborations span particle physics, meteorology, and various scientific fields.

Health

The European Health Insurance Card (EHIC) facilitates access to healthcare for individuals insured within the EEA and Switzerland when visiting other member states. The epSOS project aims to enhance patient mobility by enabling electronic access to health data and prescriptions across participating countries.

Charter of Fundamental Rights

The Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union, incorporated into the Treaty of Lisbon, enshrines fundamental rights across the EU. Poland has negotiated an opt-out from this charter.

Right to vote

European integration has expanded voting rights for non-citizens. EU citizens possess voting rights in local elections within their country of residence, a right also extended to all foreign residents in several member states. This principle of extending suffrage is also reflected in agreements within the Nordic Passport Union and various bilateral treaties.

Schengen Area

The Schengen Agreement has largely abolished internal border controls among 26 European states, including 23 EU member states and four non-EU countries (Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, and Switzerland). Ireland maintains an opt-out, participating in a Common Travel Area with the UK. Monaco, San Marino, and Vatican City are de facto members.

Visa policy in EU

The EU has visa-free regime agreements with several European countries outside the Union, including Armenia, Moldova, and Ukraine, with ongoing discussions with others. Ireland maintains its own independent visa policy.

Defence

The EU is developing its Common Security and Defence Policy, with multinational military forces and peacekeeping operations under its command. Close ties exist with NATO, facilitated by the Berlin Plus agreement, which allows the EU to utilize NATO assets under certain conditions. Many EU member states are also NATO members, reflecting a deep integration in security matters.

Space

The European Union and the European Space Agency (ESA) are working towards a common political framework for space activities. While ESA is an intergovernmental organization with distinct membership from the EU, efforts are underway to align their approaches and potentially integrate ESA more closely with the EU structure.

Future of European Integration

The process of European integration is inherently dynamic, with no predetermined endpoint. The debate surrounding the "finalité politique" (political purpose) of the EU's development continues, encompassing discussions on potential enlargements and the ultimate political shape of the Union. Integration and enlargement remain central political issues, often clashing with concerns about national sovereignty and cultural identity, and facing opposition from eurosceptics.

To the east of the EU, the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU), launched in 2015 by Russia, Belarus, and Kazakhstan, has expanded to include Armenia and Kyrgyzstan, with other nations considering membership. This represents a parallel, albeit distinct, integration project. Some Eastern European countries, such as Armenia, have pursued cooperation with both the EU and the EAEU, demonstrating a complex geopolitical balancing act. The [Community for Democracy and Rights of Nations], formed by post-Soviet disputed states, signifies another regional integration effort.

The concept of a "common space from Lisbon to Vladivostok" has been proposed, envisioning closer economic and security ties between the EU and Russia. However, Russia's recent policies have leaned towards economic self-sufficiency, potentially hindering such broad integration.

The idea of a unified legal space encompassing the CIS and Europe has also been explored, advocating for the adoption of European legal standards and the harmonization of judicial practices. This concept, rooted in the Roerich Pact for cultural heritage protection, seeks to build bridges between legal traditions.

Beyond Europe

The EU engages in various forms of cooperation with regions beyond its immediate borders. The Euro-Mediterranean Partnership, or Barcelona Process, aims to strengthen relations with Mediterranean countries. The Union for the Mediterranean further consolidates this engagement. The EU also participates in broader forums like the Asia–Europe Meeting (ASEM) and collaborates with African, Caribbean and Pacific Group of States (ACP) and Latin American countries through organizations like the Euro-Latin American Parliamentary Assembly.

Commonwealth of Independent States

The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), a loose association of former Soviet republics, is working towards a visa-free regime and a planned free-trade area. Russia and Belarus have formed a Union State, and a customs union and single market have been established among Belarus, Russia, and Kazakhstan, leading to the Eurasian Economic Union.

Community for Democracy and Rights of Nations

The post-Soviet disputed states of Abkhazia, South Ossetia, and Transnistria are members of the Community for Democracy and Rights of Nations, fostering closer integration among themselves.

EU and other regions and countries in the world

The EU engages in diverse partnerships, including the ASEM forum with Asian countries, the ACP–EU Joint Parliamentary Assembly promoting development cooperation, and the Euro-Latin American Parliamentary Assembly. A proposed Transatlantic Free Trade Area (TAFTA) between the EU and the United States aimed to deepen economic ties.

Other organizations in world

European nations with significant historical and cultural links to other parts of the world have established organizations such as the Commonwealth of Nations, Francophonie, and the Organization of Ibero-American States.

European languages in the world

European languages, particularly English, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, Russian, and German, have a global reach, serving as lingua francas or official languages in many countries due to historical colonial ties or European diaspora.

World integration

The concept of world integration, or Globalisation, encompasses a broad spectrum of international cooperation and interdependence. This includes participation in organizations like the World Trade Organization (WTO), the pursuit of economic integration through various blocs, adherence to international law via the International Criminal Court (ICC), and the global adoption of principles such as the abolition of the death penalty and conscription, the commitment to climate action through the Paris Agreement, and the increasing recognition of same-sex marriage.