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Islam

Alright, let's delve into the intricate tapestry of Islam. Don't expect any saccharine pronouncements; this is about facts, presented with the stark clarity they deserve.

Abrahamic Monotheistic Religion

This article focuses on the religion. For alternative meanings, consult Islam (disambiguation).

Islam (ٱلْإِسْلَام)

The Kaaba at Masjid al-Haram in Mecca, Saudi Arabia, stands as the holiest Islamic site.

Islam is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion centered on the Quran, [15] and the teachings and practices of Muhammad. [16] Adherents, known as Muslims, are the world's second-largest religious population, estimated at 2 billion worldwide, trailing only Christianity. [13]

Muslims believe in a primordial, universal faith that was revealed through numerous prophets and messengers across history, including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, and Jesus. They consider Islam to be the final and complete manifestation of this faith. The Quran is regarded as the verbatim word of God, an unaltered and final divine revelation. Alongside the Quran, Muslims acknowledge previous revelations, such as the Tawrat (the Torah), the Zabur (Psalms), and the Injil (Gospel). Muhammad is revered as the final prophet, the "Seal of the Prophets", through whom the divine message was perfected. The Sunnah, comprising Muhammad's teachings and normative example, meticulously documented in hadith, serves as a fundamental guide for Muslim life.

The core tenets of Islam include the absolute oneness and uniqueness of God (tawhid), and the belief in an afterlife (akhirah) culminating in the Last Judgment. On this day, individuals will be judged for their deeds, with the righteous rewarded in Jannah (paradise) and the wicked punished in Jahannam (hell). The Five Pillars of Islam are the foundational, obligatory acts of worship: the declaration of faith (shahada), ritual prayers (salah), almsgiving (zakat), fasting (sawm) during the month of Ramadan, and the pilgrimage (hajj) to Mecca. [17][18] Islamic law, or Sharia, encompasses virtually all aspects of life, from banking and finance and welfare to matters of gender roles and environmental ethics. The two primary religious observances are Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha. The three most sacred sites in Islam are Masjid al-Haram in Mecca, the Prophet's Mosque in Medina, and al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem.

Islam originated in Mecca around 610 CE, marking the period when Muhammad received his first revelation. By the time of his death, a significant portion of the Arabian Peninsula had embraced Islam. The early expansion of Muslim rule, under the Rashidun Caliphate and later the Umayyad Caliphate, extended from the Iberian Peninsula to the Indus Valley. The Islamic Golden Age, particularly during the Abbasid Caliphate, witnessed a remarkable scientific, economic, and cultural efflorescence. The spread of Islam occurred through various caliphates and states, facilitated by extensive trade, missionary activities (dawah), conquests, and imperial expansion.

The two principal branches of Islam are Sunni Islam (85–90%) [19] and Shia Islam (10–15%). [20] While the Shia–Sunni divide originated from disagreements over the succession to Muhammad, it has since evolved to encompass theological and juridical divergences. Sunni Muslims rely on the Kutub al-Sittah as their canonical hadith collections, whereas Shia Muslims depend on The Four Books. Muslims constitute the majority population in 53 countries. [13] Indonesia hosts the largest Muslim population (12% of the global total), followed by South Asia (31%), the Middle East-North Africa region (20%), and sub-Saharan Africa (15%). Significant Muslim communities also exist in the Americas, China, and Europe. According to Pew Research, Islam is the world's fastest-growing major religion, primarily due to higher fertility rates and a younger demographic profile compared to other religious groups.

Etymology

Muslims § Etymology

In Arabic, Islam (إسلام, al-Islām) literally translates to "submission [to God]". [21][22][23] The term derives from the triliteral root س-ل-م (S-L-M), which encompasses concepts of submission, safety, and peace. [24] In a religious context, it signifies complete surrender to the will of God. A Muslim (مسلم, muslim) is defined as "one who submits to God," or "one who surrenders to God." [25][26] However, Quranic studies scholar Mohsen Goudarzi posits that in the Quran, dīn means "worship," islām means "monotheism," and muslim means "monotheist." [27] The Hadith of Gabriel presents Islam as one component of a triad that includes Iman (faith) and Ihsan (excellence). [28][29]

Historically, Islam was referred to as Mohammedanism in the English-speaking world. This term has fallen into disuse and is often considered offensive, as it implies the centrality of a human figure rather than God in the faith. [30]

Articles of Faith

Aqidah and Iman (Islam)

The Islamic creed, or aqidah, is founded upon belief in six core articles: God, angels, divine revelation, prophets, the Day of Resurrection, and divine predestination. [31]

God

The central concept in Islam is Tawhid (توحيد), the absolute oneness of God. This is understood as strict monotheism, though Islamic mystical traditions also incorporate panentheistic elements. [32][33] God is considered incomparable and without multiplicity of persons, as in the Christian Trinity. Associating multiplicity with God or attributing divine attributes to others is considered idolatory or shirk. Consequently, Muslims are not iconodules and do not represent God in any form. God is known and referred to through numerous names and attributes, the most prevalent being Ar-Rahmān (الرحمان, "The Entirely Merciful") and Ar-Rahīm (الرحيم, "The Especially Merciful"), which commence most chapters of the Quran. [34][35]

Islam teaches that God created the universe by His command, articulated in the phrase "Be, and it is." [i][21] The ultimate purpose of existence is understood as the worship of God. [36] God is perceived as a personal entity, [21] with no intermediaries, such as clergy, required for divine communion. Awareness and consciousness of God are referred to as Taqwa. The term Allah is unique, without plural or gender, and is used by Muslims and Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews to refer to God. In contrast, ʾilāh (إله) is a generic term for a deity. [37]

Angels

Angels (Arabic: ملك, malak) are described in the Quran [38] and hadith [39] as beings created to worship God and carry out specific duties, such as conveying divine revelations, recording human actions, and receiving souls at the time of death. They are described as being created from 'light' (nūr) [40][41][42] or 'fire' (nār). [43][44][45][46] Islamic angels are often depicted in anthropomorphic forms combined with supernatural characteristics, such as wings and immense size, and are adorned with celestial regalia. [47][48][49][50] Angels are understood to be free from bodily needs and desires, such as eating and drinking. [51] Prominent angels like Gabriel (Jibrīl) and Michael (Mika'il) are explicitly mentioned in the Quran. Angels feature prominently in narratives of the Mi'raj, Muhammad's celestial journey, where he encounters various angelic beings. [39] Angels also play a significant role in Islamic eschatology, theology, and philosophy. [52]

Scriptures

The primary holy text in Islam is the Quran. Muslims believe its verses were revealed by God to Muhammad through the archangel Gabriel over a period spanning from 610 CE [53][54] to 632 CE, the year of Muhammad's passing. [55] During Muhammad's lifetime, these revelations were transcribed by his companions, though oral transmission through memorization was also a crucial method. [56] The Quran comprises 114 chapters (sūrah), containing a total of 6,236 verses (āyāt). The earlier Meccan chapters primarily address spiritual themes, while the later Medinan chapters focus on social and legal matters relevant to the nascent Muslim community. [21][57] The hadith, or accounts of Muhammad's life and teachings, are consulted by Muslim jurists to supplement and interpret the Quran. The study of Quranic exegesis is known as tafsir. [58][59] Beyond its religious significance, the Quran is widely acclaimed as a masterpiece of Arabic literature, [60][61] profoundly influencing both art and the Arabic language. [62]

Islam also posits that God has sent down revelations, termed wahy, to various prophets throughout history. However, Muslims believe that certain previously revealed scriptures, such as the Tawrat (Torah) and the Injil (Gospel), have been subject to distortion, either in textual content or interpretation. [63][64][53][65] The Quran, meaning 'Recitation,' is considered the final, verbatim, and uncorrupted word of God. [57][66][67][68]

Prophets

Prophets (Arabic: أنبياء, anbiyāʾ) are individuals chosen by God to convey His message. Those who also delivered a divine book are designated as "messengers" (rasūl). [70] Muslims believe prophets are strictly human, not divine. They are understood to have preached the same fundamental message of Islam—submission to God's will—to different communities throughout history, explaining the commonalities found across various religions. The Quran names many figures recognized as prophets in Islam, including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, David in Islam, and Jesus, among others. [21][71] Narratives concerning prophets beyond the Quranic accounts are compiled and explored in the Qisas al-Anbiya (Stories of the Prophets).

Muhammad is believed by Muslims to be the final prophet, the "Seal of the Prophets," who delivered the complete message of Islam. [72][73] His life and example, known as the Sunnah (literally, "trodden path"), serve as a model for Muslims, guiding their emulation of his moral conduct and providing crucial context for Quranic interpretation. [74][75][76][77] These examples are preserved in traditions known as hadith, which document his words, actions, and character. Hadith Qudsi represent a subcategory of hadith where God's verbatim words are quoted by Muhammad, distinct from the Quran. A hadith comprises a chain of narrators (sanad) and the actual text (matn). Authenticity is assessed through various methodologies, with common classifications including "authentic" (ṣaḥīḥ), "good" (ḥasan), and "weak" (ḍaʻīf). Hadith collections like the Kutub al-Sittah are highly regarded in Sunni Islam, with Sahih al-Bukhari often considered the most authoritative source after the Quran. The Four Books are similarly esteemed by Shia Islam. [78][79][80]

Resurrection and Judgment

Belief in the "Day of Resurrection," or Yawm al-Qiyāmah (يوم القيامة), is fundamental for Muslims. Its timing is decreed by God but remains unknown to humanity. The Quran, hadith, and scholarly commentaries describe the events and trials preceding and during this final day. The Quran specifically emphasizes bodily resurrection, a departure from the pre-Islamic Arabian understanding of death. [81][82][83]

On Yawm al-Qiyāmah, all individuals will be judged by God based on their deeds. Those who have performed good deeds will be rewarded with entry into Jannah (paradise), while those who have committed evil will face punishment in Jahannam (hell). [84] The Quran states in Surat al-Zalzalah: "So whoever does an atom's weight of good will see it. And whoever does an atom's weight of evil will see it." The Quran enumerates various sins that can lead to condemnation in hell, but also affirms God's forgiveness for those who repent. Good deeds, such as charity, prayer, and compassion towards animals, [85] are believed to be rewarded with eternal bliss in paradise. Islamic conceptions of paradise describe it as a place of profound joy and blessings, with mystical traditions framing these delights within the context of ecstatic awareness of God. [86][87][88] Yawm al-Qiyāmah is also referred to in the Quran as Yawm ad-Dīn (يوم الدين, "Day of Judgment"); [ii] as-Sāʿah (الساعة, "the Last Hour"); [iii] and al-Qāriʿah (القارعة, "The Clatterer"). [iv]

Divine Predestination

The concept of divine predestination in Islam (Arabic: القضاء والقدر, al-qadāʾ wa l-qadar) asserts that all matters, both good and bad, are ordained by God. The term al-qadar signifies "power" and is derived from a root meaning "to measure" or "to calculate." [89][90][91][92] Muslims often express this belief by saying "In-sha-Allah" (Arabic: إن شاء الله), meaning "if God wills," when discussing future events. [93]

Acts of Worship

Five Pillars of Islam and Ibadah

The five obligatory acts of worship, known as the "Pillars of Islam" (Arkān al-Islām), are the Shahada (declaration of faith), the five daily prayers, Zakat (almsgiving), fasting during Ramadan, and the Hajj pilgrimage. [94] Additionally, Muslims are encouraged to perform optional, supererogatory acts of devotion. [95]

Declaration of Faith

The Shahada [96] is the Islamic oath of allegiance, a declaration of faith. The full statement is: "ʾašhadu ʾal-lā ʾilāha ʾillā-llāhu wa ʾašhadu ʾanna muħammadan rasūlu-llāh" (أشهد أن لا إله إلا الله وأشهد أن محمداً رسول الله), meaning, "I testify that there is no deity but God, and I testify that Muhammad is the messenger of God." [97] The simplicity of the creed is often highlighted, with the Shahada forming the foundation of the entire religion. Non-Muslims seeking to convert to Islam must recite the Shahada in the presence of witnesses. [98][99]

Prayer

Prayer in Islam, known as as-salah or aṣ-ṣalāt (الصلاة), is considered a direct communion with God. It involves a series of ritual units called rakat, which include bowing and prostrating in devotion. The five daily prayers are obligatory. These prayers are performed in Arabic and oriented towards the Kaaba in Mecca, a direction known as the Qibla. Ritual purity, achieved through a ritual washing called Wudu or a full body wash known as Ghusl, is a prerequisite for prayer. [100][101][102][103]

A mosque serves as a place of Muslim worship, referred to by its Arabic name, masjid. While primarily a site for prayer, mosques also function as vital social centers for the Muslim community. For instance, the Masjid an-Nabawi ("Prophetic Mosque") in Medina, Saudi Arabia, historically provided shelter for the impoverished. Minarets are distinctive towers from which the Adhan, the call to prayer, is recited. [104][105][106]

Almsgiving

Zakat (زكاة, zakāh), or almsgiving, is a mandatory charitable contribution, typically 2.5% of accumulated wealth annually, paid by those who can afford it to aid the poor, debtors, captives, and those employed in its collection. [107] It functions as a system of welfare within Muslim societies. [108] Zakat is viewed as a religious obligation, a trust from God's bounty owed to the needy, and an act of purifying one's surplus wealth. [109][110] The total annual contribution through zakat is estimated to be fifteen times greater than global humanitarian aid donations. [111] Sadaqah is a voluntary, highly encouraged form of charity, distinct from zakat. [112][113] A Waqf is a perpetual charitable endowment, often funding institutions like hospitals and schools. [114]

Fasting

Fasting in Islam, known as ṣawm (صوم), involves abstaining from food, drink, and other bodily consumptions, including smoking, from dawn until sunset. [115] It is a duty for Muslims during the month of Ramadan. The purpose of fasting is to foster a sense of closeness to God through self-restraint and to cultivate empathy for the less fortunate. Other days, such as the Day of Arafah, are designated for optional fasting. [116]

Pilgrimage

The Islamic pilgrimage, known as ḥajj (حج), is a once-in-a-lifetime obligation for all Muslims who are able to perform it, occurring during the Islamic month of Dhu al-Hijjah. The rituals largely commemorate the actions of the family of Abraham. Pilgrims circumambulate the Kaaba seven times, which Muslims believe Abraham built as a place of worship. They also walk seven times between the hills of Safa and Marwa, reenacting the search for water by Abraham's wife, Hagar, before Mecca became a settled community. [117][118][119] The Hajj also involves a day of prayer and reflection at Mount Arafat and the symbolic stoning of the Devil. [120] Male pilgrims typically wear two simple, unstitched white garments called ihram, signifying unity and equality among participants regardless of social status. [121][122] The optional Umrah pilgrimage can be performed at any time of the year. Other significant pilgrimage sites include Medina, the burial place of Muhammad, and Jerusalem, a city central to many Islamic prophets and the site of Al-Aqsa, which was once the direction of prayer before the Kaaba. [123][124]

Other Acts of Worship

Quran Recitation, Dua, and Dhikr

Muslims are encouraged to recite and memorize the Quran, or portions thereof, as acts of virtue. Tajwid refers to the rules governing the proper elocution of the Quran. [125] Many Muslims complete the recitation of the entire Quran during Ramadan. [126] An individual who has memorized the entire Quran is known as a hafiz ("memorizer"), and hadith traditions suggest such individuals will be able to intercede for others on Judgment Day. [127]

Supplication to God, known as duʿāʾ (دعاء), has its own etiquette, which may include raising hands in a gesture of pleading. [128]

The remembrance of God (dhikr, ذكر) involves the repetition of phrases that reference God. Common examples include Tahmid (الحمد لله, al-Ḥamdu lillāh), meaning "praise be due to God," recited during prayer or upon experiencing gratitude; Tasbih, glorifying God; and saying "in the name of God" (basmalah, بسملة) before commencing an activity, such as eating. [129]

History

Muhammad and the Beginning of Islam (570–632)

Muhammad and Muhammad in Islam

Timeline of Early Islamic History

Muhammad in Mecca, Early Social Changes Under Islam, First Islamic State

According to Islamic tradition, Muhammad was born in Mecca in 570 CE [570] and was orphaned in early childhood. He grew up as a merchant, earning the reputation of "the trusted one" (الامين, al-Amīn) and was often sought for his impartiality as an arbitrator. He later married his employer, the businesswoman Khadija. [130] In 610 CE, concerned by the moral decay and idolatry prevalent in Mecca, and seeking solitude for spiritual contemplation, Muhammad retreated to the Cave of Hira on Jabal al-Nour, a mountain near Mecca. It was during this retreat that he is said to have received the first revelation of the Quran from the angel Gabriel. [53] This event, known as the "Night of Power" (Laylat al-Qadr), is considered a pivotal moment in Islamic history. Over the subsequent 22 years, from the age of 40, Muhammad continued to receive divine revelations, establishing him as the last prophet, the "seal of the prophets." [63][64][131]

"Muhammad at the Ka'ba" from the Siyer-i Nebi. Muhammad's face is veiled (c. 1595).

During his time in Mecca, Muhammad began preaching, initially in private, then publicly, urging his listeners to abandon polytheism and worship the one God. Many early converts were from marginalized groups, including women, the poor, foreigners, and slaves, such as the first muezzin, Bilal ibn Rabah al-Habashi. [133] The Meccan elite perceived Muhammad's message as a threat to their social hierarchy, as he challenged the established order and offered a different vision to the underprivileged, particularly given their economic reliance on the idol worship at the Kaaba. [134][135]

Following 12 years of persecution by the Meccans, Muhammad and his companions undertook the Hijra ("emigration") in 622 CE to Yathrib, later renamed Medina. There, Muhammad established the first Islamic state, uniting the Medinan converts (Ansar) and the Meccan migrants (Muhajirun). The Constitution of Medina was established, outlining rights and responsibilities for the diverse communities within the city, including religious freedoms and autonomy in legal matters, alongside a commitment to mutual defense against external threats. [136] Muslim forces achieved victory at the Battle of Badr in 624. Subsequent engagements included the inconclusive Battle of Uhud [137] and the Battle of the Trench (March–April 627), where Medina successfully repelled an attempted siege. The Treaty of Hudaybiyyah was signed in 628, establishing a truce between Mecca and the Muslims, though it was later violated by Mecca. As more tribes converted to Islam, Meccan trade routes were disrupted by Muslim actions. [138][139] The conquest of Mecca occurred in 629 with minimal bloodshed, and by Muhammad's death in 632 at the age of 62, he had unified the tribes of Arabia into a singular religious and political entity. [53]

Early Islamic Period (632–750)

Succession to Muhammad and Early Muslim Conquests
Ghadir Khumm and Saqifa
Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, built by Caliph Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan, completed at the end of the Second Fitna.

Muhammad passed away in 632 CE. His immediate successors, known as Caliphs—Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman ibn al-Affan, Ali ibn Abi Talib, and sometimes Hasan ibn Ali—are referred to in Sunni Islam as the al-khulafāʾ ar-rāshidūn ("Rightly Guided Caliphs"). [140][141] Following Muhammad's death, some tribes renounced Islam and rallied behind new prophets, but were subdued by Abu Bakr in the Ridda wars. [142][143][144][145][146] Local populations of Jews and indigenous Christians, who often faced persecution and heavy taxation as religious minorities, frequently facilitated Muslim expansion into Persian and Byzantine territories. [147] Uthman's election in 644 was followed by his assassination, leading to Ali's caliphate. The First Fitna (civil war) erupted when Muhammad's widow, Aisha, led an army against Ali, seeking retribution for Uthman's death, but was defeated at the Battle of the Camel. Ali's attempt to depose the governor of Syria, Mu'awiya, perceived as corrupt, led to conflict. Mu'awiya's rebellion culminated in his defeat at the Battle of Siffin. Ali's decision to accept arbitration angered the Kharijites, an extremist faction who deemed him a sinner for not upholding divine judgment. The Kharijites were subsequently defeated at the Battle of Nahrawan, but Ali was later assassinated by a Kharijite extremist. Ali's son, Hasan ibn Ali, was elected Caliph but abdicated to Mu'awiya under a peace treaty aimed at preventing further bloodshed, in exchange for Mu'awiya's pledge not to appoint a successor. [152] Mu'awiya established the Umayyad dynasty by designating his son Yazid I as his successor, triggering the Second Fitna. The killing of Husayn ibn Ali, Ali's son, by Yazid's forces at the Battle of Karbala is an event commemorated annually by Shia Muslims. Sunni opposition, led by Ibn al-Zubayr, challenged the dynastic succession, but was ultimately defeated at the siege of Mecca. These leadership disputes were foundational to the Sunni–Shia schism, with Shia Muslims believing leadership should remain within Muhammad's family through Ali, known as the Ahl al-Bayt. [153][154]

The compilation of the Quran began during Abu Bakr's caliphate. Caliph Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz established a committee, The Seven Fuqaha of Medina, [155][156] and Malik ibn Anas authored one of the earliest texts on Islamic jurisprudence, the Muwatta, reflecting the consensus of these jurists. [157][158][159] The Kharijites, adhering to a strict binary of good and evil, declared any Muslim committing a major sin an unbeliever. This label has, in modern times, been applied to groups such as ISIS. [160] Conversely, the Murji'ah espoused the belief that judgment of an individual's piety rests solely with God, implying that wrongdoers might be misguided but not necessarily infidels. [161] This theological stance gained traction and became prevalent within mainstream Islamic beliefs. [162]

The Umayyad dynasty expanded its reach across the Maghreb, the Iberian Peninsula, Narbonnese Gaul, and Sindh. [163] The Umayyads faced challenges regarding legitimacy and relied heavily on their military patronage. [164] The jizya, a tax levied on non-Muslims, exempted them from military service, and the Umayyads resisted recognizing the conversions of non-Arabs to maintain revenue. [162] While the Rashidun Caliphate emphasized austerity, exemplified by Umar's requirement for official inventories of possessions, [165] the Umayyad penchant for luxury fostered dissent among the pious. [162] The Kharijites instigated the Berber Revolt, leading to the establishment of the first independent Muslim states outside the Caliphate's direct control. The Abbasid Revolution saw the overthrow of the Umayyads by a coalition of non-Arab converts (Mawali), Arab clans marginalized by the Umayyad clan, and some Shia sympathizers, ushering in the more cosmopolitan Abbasid dynasty in 750. [166][167]

Classical Era (750–1258)

Hadith Studies and Islamic Philosophy
Islamic World Contributions to Medieval Europe and Turco-Persian Tradition

Al-Shafi'i codified a method for assessing the reliability of hadith. [168] During the early Abbasid period, scholars like Muhammad al-Bukhari and Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj compiled major Sunni hadith collections, while figures such as Al-Kulayni and Ibn Babawayh compiled significant Shia collections. The four major Sunni Madhhabs—Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki, and Shafi'i—were established based on the teachings of Abū Ḥanīfa, Ahmad ibn Hanbal, Malik ibn Anas, and al-Shafi'i, respectively. In contrast, Ja'far al-Sadiq's teachings formed the basis of Ja'fari jurisprudence. In the 9th century, Al-Tabari completed the first comprehensive Quranic commentary, the Tafsir al-Tabari, which became highly influential within Sunni Islam. Asceticism and a focus on spiritual purification, inspired by figures like Hasan al-Basri, gained prominence, evolving into the mystical tradition known as tasawwuf or Sufism. [169][170]

Theological debates, particularly concerning free will, were prominent during this era. Hasan al-Basri argued that while God possesses foreknowledge, human actions, both good and evil, stem from the misuse of free will and the influence of Satan. [171][b] The Muʿtazila, a rationalist philosophical school, championed the concept of human free will, originating with Wasil ibn Ata. [173] Caliph Mamun al Rashid adopted this as an official creed and attempted to enforce it, though unsuccessfully. [174] The traditionalist Ahmad ibn Hanbal famously resisted the Muʿtazila doctrine that the Quran was created rather than eternal, enduring torture and imprisonment for nearly thirty months. [175] However, other schools of speculative theology, such as Maturidism, founded by Abu Mansur al-Maturidi, and Ash'ari, founded by Al-Ash'ari, achieved wider acceptance. Philosophers like Al-Farabi, Avicenna, and Averroes attempted to reconcile Aristotelian thought with Islamic teachings, a pursuit paralleled by scholasticism in Christianity and the work of Maimonides in Judaism. Conversely, figures like Al-Ghazali argued against such syncretism and ultimately gained considerable influence. [176][177]

This period is often referred to as the "Islamic Golden Age". [178][179][166][180][149] Islamic scientific contributions spanned diverse fields, including medicine, mathematics, astronomy, and agriculture, as well as physics, economics, engineering, and optics. [181][182][183][184] Avicenna was a pioneer in experimental medicine, [185][186] and his The Canon of Medicine served as a foundational medical text for centuries in both the Islamic world and Europe. Rhazes was the first to identify smallpox and measles. Public hospitals issued the first medical diplomas for licensed physicians. [187][188][189] Ibn al-Haytham is regarded as the progenitor of the modern scientific method and is often hailed as the "world's first true scientist," particularly for his groundbreaking work in [optics]. [190][191][192] In engineering, the Banū Mūsā brothers' automaton, a mechanical flute player, is considered the first programmable machine. [193] The concept of the algorithm in mathematics is named after Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi, who is also recognized as a founder of algebra, derived from his book al-jabr. Other mathematicians developed the concept of a function (mathematics). [194] Scientists received salaries equivalent to those of professional athletes today. [195] The University of Al Karaouine, founded in 859 CE, is recognized by Guinness World Records as the world's oldest degree-granting university. [196] Many non-Muslims, including Christians, Jews, and Sabians, [197] significantly contributed to Islamic civilization across various disciplines. [198][199] The institution known as the House of Wisdom employed Christian and Persian scholars for translation work and the advancement of knowledge. [200][197][201]

Autonomous regions broke away from the Abbasid empire, establishing their own dynasties, such as the Tulunids in Egypt in 868 CE [202] and the Ghaznavid dynasty in Central Asia in 977 CE. [203] This era of fragmentation coincided with the "Shi'a Century," approximately from 945 to 1055 CE, marked by the rise of the millennialist Isma'ili Shia missionary movement. The Fatimid dynasty, an Isma'ili group, gained control of North Africa in the 10th century, [204] while the Qarmatians, another Isma'ili faction, sacked Mecca and stole the Black Stone, a sacred object within the Kaaba, during their unsuccessful rebellion. [205] The Buyid dynasty, also Isma'ili, conquered Baghdad, reducing the Abbasid Caliphate to a symbolic monarchy. The Sunni Seljuk dynasty sought to re-establish Sunni Islam by promoting scholarly consensus, notably through the establishment of educational institutions called Nezamiyeh, associated with figures like Al-Ghazali and [Saadi Shirazi]. [206]

The expansion of the Muslim world included the conversion of Volga Bulgaria to Islam through missionary efforts. The Delhi Sultanate extended its influence deep into the Indian subcontinent, leading to numerous conversions to Islam, particularly among low-caste Hindus, whose descendants now form the majority of Indian Muslims. [207][208] Trade routes facilitated the presence of Muslims in China, where they dominated the import and export sector during the Song dynasty. [209] Muslims were integrated as a governing minority class within the Yuan dynasty. [210]

Pre-modern Era (1258–18th Century)

Safavid Conversion of Iran to Shia Islam

Through extensive Muslim trade networks and the activities of Sufi orders, [211] Islam disseminated into new regions [212] and Muslim populations integrated into diverse cultures.

The Ottoman Empire facilitated the spread of Islam into Southeast Europe. [213] Conversion to Islam often involved degrees of syncretism, [214] as evidenced by Muhammad's appearance in Hindu folklore. [215] Muslim Turks incorporated elements of Turkish Shamanism beliefs into their practice of Islam. [c][217] During the Ming Dynasty in China, Muslims of earlier immigrant descent assimilated culturally, sometimes through mandated assimilation policies, [218] adopting Chinese names and customs, with Nanjing becoming a significant center for Islamic scholarship. [219][220]

Cultural shifts became apparent with a diminished Arab influence following the Mongol destruction of the Abbasid Caliphate. [221] The Muslim Mongol Khanates in Iran and Central Asia benefited from increased cross-cultural exchange with East Asia under Mongol rule, fostering distinct cultural developments separate from Arab influence, such as the Timurid Renaissance under the Timurid dynasty. [222] Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (1201–1274) proposed the Tusi couple, a mathematical model later suggested to have been adopted by Copernicus without revision in his heliocentric model. [223] Jamshīd al-Kāshī's calculation of pi remained unsurpassed for 180 years. [224]

Following the introduction of gunpowder weaponry, large, centralized Muslim states consolidated around what are known as [gunpowder empires], diverging from the previous fragmentation across various territories. The Ottoman dynasty of the Ottoman Empire claimed the title of caliphate, solidifying its claims in 1517 when Selim I assumed control of Mecca and Medina. [225] The Shia Safavid dynasty rose to power in 1501, subsequently conquering all of Iran. [226] In South Asia, Babur founded the Mughal Empire. [227]

The state religions of these centralized gunpowder empires significantly influenced the religious practices of their populations. A symbiotic relationship between Ottoman rulers and Sufism deeply impacted Ottoman governance from its inception. Orders like the Mevlevi Order and the Bektashis maintained close ties with the sultans, [228] fostering the flourishing of both mystical Sufi practices and heterodox and syncretic approaches to Islam. The often forceful Safavid conversion of Iran to the Twelver Shia Islam of the Safavid Empire ensured the eventual dominance of the Twelver sect within Shia Islam. Persian migrants to South Asia, acting as influential administrators and landowners, contributed to the spread of Shia Islam, establishing significant Shia communities outside of Iran. [229] Nader Shah, who deposed the Safavids, attempted to improve relations with Sunnis by proposing the integration of Twelverism into Sunni Islam as a fifth madhhab, known as Ja'farism, [230] but this initiative failed to gain recognition from the Ottomans. [231][232]

Modern Era (18th–20th Centuries)

Abdülmecid II, the last Caliph of the Ottoman dynasty.

In the 14th century, Ibn Taymiyya championed a puritanical interpretation of Islam, [233] advocating for a return to simpler theology over philosophical abstractions [233] and calling for the reopening of the gates of ijtihad rather than adhering to blind imitation of scholars. [234] He also advocated for jihad against those he deemed heretical, [235] though his writings had a limited impact during his lifetime. [236] In 18th-century Arabia, Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab, influenced by Ibn Taymiyya and Ibn al-Qayyim, founded a movement known as Wahhabism to restore what he perceived as unadulterated Islam. [237][238] He condemned many local Islamic customs, such as venerating the tomb of Muhammad or saints, as later innovations and sinful practices. [238][239] He ordered the destruction of sacred rocks and trees, Sufi shrines, the tombs of Muhammad and his companions, and the tomb of Husayn in Karbala, a major Shia pilgrimage site. [239][240][241] He formed an alliance with the Saud family, which eventually led to their conquest of the territory that would become Saudi Arabia by the 1920s. [239][242] In China, movements like Sailaifengye, promoted by Ma Wanfu and Ma Debao in the 19th century after their return from Mecca, were eventually suppressed by Sufi groups, forcing their adherents into hiding. [243] Other reform movements sought to revise Sufism rather than reject it; the Senusiyya and Muhammad Ahmad waged wars and established states in Libya and Sudan, respectively. [244][page needed] In India, Shah Waliullah Dehlawi adopted a more conciliatory approach toward Sufism, influencing the Deobandi movement. [245] In response, the Barelwi movement emerged as a popular counter-movement, defending traditional Sufism and advocating for its reform. [246][247]

The Muslim world experienced a general political decline from the 1800s onwards, particularly in comparison to European powers. Earlier, in the 15th century, the Reconquista successfully ended the Muslim presence in Iberia. By the 19th century, the British East India Company had formally annexed the Mughal dynasty in India. [248] In response to Western Imperialism, many intellectuals initiated movements for Islamic reform. [249] Islamic modernism, initially termed Salafiyya by Western scholars, embraced modern values and institutions like democracy while maintaining scriptural adherence. Key figures in this movement included Muhammad 'Abduh and Jamal al-Din al-Afghani. [250] Abul A'la Maududi significantly influenced modern political Islam. [251][252] For the first time, elements of Sharia were partially codified into law in 1869 within the Ottoman Empire's Mecelle code, aligning with contemporary trends in legal codification. [253]

The Ottoman Empire dissolved after World War I, and the Ottoman Caliphate was abolished in 1924. [254] The subsequent Sharifian Caliphate quickly collapsed, [255][256][257] leaving Islam without a recognized Caliph. [257] Pan-Islamists sought to unify Muslims, competing with emerging nationalist movements like pan-Arabism. [258][259] The Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, comprising Muslim-majority countries, was established in 1969 following the arson of the Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem. [260]

The advent of global communication networks facilitated the widespread dissemination of religious knowledge. The adoption of the hijab has become more prevalent, [284] and some Muslim intellectuals are increasingly endeavoring to distinguish scriptural Islamic tenets from cultural traditions. [285] This increased access to information has also led to the rise of popular "televangelist" preachers, such as Amr Khaled, who rival the traditional ulema in their reach, thereby decentralizing religious authority. [286][287] More "individualized" interpretations of Islam [288] are notably espoused by Liberal Muslims, who aim to reconcile religious traditions with contemporary secular governance, [289][290] an approach that has drawn criticism regarding its compatibility with traditional interpretations. [291][292] Furthermore, secularism is often perceived as an alien ideology imposed by external forces and perpetuated by post-colonial ruling elites, frequently equated with [anti-religion]. [293][294]

Demographics

Muslim World and Ummah

Islam by Country and Muslim Population Growth

As of 2020, approximately 25.6% of the global population, or roughly 2 billion individuals, identify as Muslim. [13][296][297][298][299][300] This figure stood at 12.3% in 1900 [301] and 19.9% in 1990, [263] with projections indicating it will reach 29.7% by 2050. [295]:8 A 2020 Pew study identified the global Muslim population as the fastest-growing religious group over the preceding decade, primarily attributed to a younger average age and higher birth rates among Muslims, factors that significantly drive natural population increase. [302]:9

Pew Research estimates that 87–90% of Muslims are Sunni and 10–13% are Shia. [303] Approximately 49 countries are Muslim-majority, [304][305][306][307][308] with 62% of the world's Muslims residing in Asia. Indonesia alone accounts for 683 million adherents, [309] alongside significant populations in Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh. [310][311][312] Arab Muslims constitute the largest ethnic group among Muslims globally, [313] followed by Bengalis [314][315] and Punjabis. [316] Estimates suggest China has between 20 to 30 million Muslims (1.5% to 2% of its population). [317][318] Islam in Europe is the second-largest religion after Christianity in many European nations, with growth driven primarily by immigration and higher birth rates among Muslims. In 2016, Muslims represented 4.9% of Europe's total population. [319][320]

Religious conversion has a negligible net impact on global Muslim population growth, as the number of individuals converting to Islam appears to be roughly balanced by the number of Muslims leaving the faith. [321] However, Islam is projected to experience a modest net gain of 3 million converts between 2010 and 2050, predominantly from Sub-Saharan Africa (2.9 million). [322][323] A 2020 Pew study indicated that approximately 1% of adults raised Muslim leave the faith, with a similar proportion (around 1%) converting to Islam from other religions, resulting in low rates of religious switching in both directions. [324] Ex-Muslims are more likely to convert to another religion than to become unaffiliated. [13]

According to a CNN report, Islam attracts converts from all backgrounds, with a notable influx from African-Americans. [325] In Britain, an estimated 6,000 individuals convert to Islam annually, with women constituting the majority of new converts. [326] The Huffington Post reports that observers estimate up to 20,000 Americans convert to Islam each year, with women and African-Americans forming the largest demographic groups. [327][328]

Islam is the world's fastest-growing major religious group by both percentage and absolute numbers, and is projected to surpass Christianity as the largest religion by the end of the 21st century. [329][295] By 2050, the Muslim population is expected to nearly equal the Christian population globally, largely due to the younger age structure and higher fertility rate among Muslims compared to other religious groups. [295]:70

Main Branches or Denominations

Sunni Islam

Sunni Islam

Sunni Islam, or Sunnism, represents the largest denomination within Islam. [330][331][332] The term derives from "Ahl as-Sunnah wa'l-Jama'ah," meaning "people of the [Sunnah] (Muhammad's traditions) and the community." [333] While sometimes referred to as "orthodox Islam," [334][335][336] this designation is debated, and may be considered offensive by non-Sunnis. [337] Sunnis believe the first four Caliphs were Muhammad's rightful successors and primarily consult the six major hadith works for legal matters, adhering to one of the four main schools of jurisprudence: Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki, or Shafi'i. [338][339]

Traditionalist theology, prominently advocated by Ahmad ibn Hanbal (780–855 CE), emphasizes a textualist interpretation of the Quran and Sunnah, views the Quran as uncreated and eternal, and opposes speculative theology (kalam) in religious and ethical matters. [340] Maturidism, founded by Abu Mansur al-Maturidi (853–944 CE), posits that basic ethics can be understood through reason alone, though revelation is necessary for matters beyond human comprehension. [341] Ash'arism, established by Al-Ashʿarī (c. 874–936 CE), suggests that ethics can be derived from divine revelation but accepts reason for interpretative purposes, blending Muʿtazila approaches with traditionalist ideas. [342]

Salafism is a revivalist movement advocating a return to the practices of the earliest generations of Muslims. Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab led a prominent Salafi movement, often termed Wahhabism by outsiders, in present-day Saudi Arabia during the 18th century. [343] A similar movement, Ahl al-Hadith, also de-emphasized traditional Sunni legal interpretations, favoring direct adherence to the Quran and Hadith. The Nurcu Sunni movement, initiated by Said Nursi (1877–1960), incorporates elements of Sufism and science. [344][345]

Shia Islam

Shia Islam

Nahj al-Balagha, a compilation of sermons, letters, and sayings attributed to Imam Ali.

Shia Islam, or Shi'ism, is the second-largest Muslim denomination. [346][347][303] Shia Muslims maintain that Muhammad's rightful successor as leader must be a descendant from his family, known as the Ahl al-Bayt. These leaders, designated as Imams, are believed to possess additional spiritual authority. [348][349] Shias follow the Ja'fari school of jurisprudence. [350]

Both Sunni and Shia Muslims recount a significant event at Ghadir Khumm during Muhammad's return from his final pilgrimage, where he addressed thousands of Muslims. [351] Muhammad reportedly appointed his cousin Ali as the executor of his will and his Wali (guardian/authority). [352][353] Shia Muslims assert that Muhammad designated Ali as his successor (khalifa) and Imam (spiritual and political leader) after him, but that Ali was prevented from succeeding Muhammad due to the actions of certain companions who selected Abu Bakr as caliph. [354] Sunnis, conversely, believe Muhammad did not appoint a successor before his death and consider Abu Bakr to be the first rightful caliph. [355] Shia Muslims contend that Ali's nomination was deliberately overlooked, [356] citing Umar's appointment by Abu Bakr [357] and other historical accounts, [358] as well as the Quran's emphasis on legitimacy not being determined by majority opinion. [359]

Several early Shia Imams, including Ali and Husayn, are revered by both Sunni and Shia Muslims. [360] Twelvers, the largest Shia branch, believe in Twelve Imams, the last of whom is believed to be in occultation and will return. They recognize that the prophecy of the Twelve Imams is foretold in the Hadith of the Twelve Successors, recorded in both Sunni and Shia sources. [361] Zaydism rejects the infallibility of Imams and has sometimes been considered a 'fifth school' of Sunni Islam rather than a Shia denomination, [362][363] differing from other Shia groups regarding the status of the fifth Imam. They are sometimes known as "Fivers". [364] The Isma'ilis diverged from the Twelvers over the succession of the seventh Imam and have subsequently fragmented into various groups based on the status of subsequent Imams, with the Nizaris being the largest faction. [365]

For Shia Muslims, the Imam Ali Shrine in Najaf, the Imam Husayn Shrine in Karbala, and the Fatima Masumeh Shrine in Qom are also considered among the Islamic Holy Sites. [366]

Muhakkima

Muhakkima, Ibadi Islam, and Kharijites

Ibadism represents the third-largest branch of Islam, with origins tracing back to the Kharijite secession from the fourth Caliph, Ali. [367] It is practiced by approximately 1.45 million Muslims globally (about 0.08% of all Muslims), primarily in [Oman]. [368] Ibadism is often associated with and viewed as a moderate variant of Kharijism, though Ibadis themselves reject this classification. The Kharijites were groups that rebelled against Caliph Ali for accepting arbitration with an individual they deemed a sinner. Unlike most Kharijite groups, Ibadism does not consider Muslims who commit grave sins to be unbelievers. Ibadi hadith collections, such as the Jami Sahih, utilize chains of narrators from early Islamic history considered trustworthy; however, most Ibadi hadith are also found in standard Sunni collections, and contemporary Ibadis often accept these standard Sunni compilations. [369]

An overview of the major sects and madhahib of Islam.

Other Denominations

  • The Ahmadiyya Movement was founded in British India in 1889 by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad of [Qadian]. He claimed to be the prophesied Messiah ("Second Coming of Christ"), the Mahdi awaited by Muslims, and a "subordinate" prophet to Muhammad. [370][371] Ahmadis hold distinct beliefs and teachings compared to most other Muslims, [370][372][373][371] including differing interpretations of the Quranic title Khatam an-Nabiyyin and the concept of the Messiah's Second Coming. [372][375] These perceived deviations from normative Islamic thought have led to their rejection by the majority of Muslims as heretics, [376] resulting in the persecution of Ahmadis in various countries, [372] particularly Pakistan, [372][377] where the Government of Pakistan officially declared them non-Muslims. [378] The Ahmadiyya Movement is divided into two main groups: the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community, currently the dominant faction, and the [Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement for the Propagation of Islam]. [372]

  • Alevism is a syncretic and heterodox indigenous Islamic tradition whose adherents follow the mystical (bāṭenī, [Batin_(Islam)]) teachings of Ali and Haji Bektash Veli. [379] Alevism integrates traditional 14th-century Turkish beliefs, [380] possibly with syncretic influences from Shamanism and Animism, alongside Shia and Sufi doctrines. Estimates place the global Alevi population between 10 million and over 20 million (approximately 0.5–1% of all Muslims). [381]

  • Quranism is a religious movement within Islam founded on the principle that Islamic law and guidance should derive solely from the Quran, excluding the Sunnah or Hadith. [382] Quranists exhibit notable differences in their approach to the five pillars of Islam. [383] The movement emerged in the 19th century with thinkers like Syed Ahmad Khan, Abdullah Chakralawi, and Ghulam Ahmed Perwez in India questioning the authority of the hadith tradition. [384] In Egypt, Muhammad Tawfiq Sidqi published the article "Islam is the Quran alone" in the magazine Al-Manār, advocating for the Quran's exclusive authority. [385] A prominent late 20th-century Quranist was Rashad Khalifa, an Egyptian-American biochemist who claimed to have discovered a numerological code in the Quran and founded the Quranist organization United Submitters International. [386]

  • Mu'tazilism was an early Islamic theological school distinguished by its emphasis on rationalism, particularly in interpreting the Quran and the hadith. [387][388] The school was founded on five core principles: divine oneness (tawhid), divine justice, the certainty of divine promises and threats, an intermediate position regarding the status of major sinners, and the obligation to promote good and forbid evil. [388] Unlike Sunnis, Mu'tazilites rejected the traditional view of the Quran as God's uncreated word, asserting instead that the Quran was a created revelation to uphold God's absolute oneness. [389] Emphasizing reason, they argued that human free will enabled individuals to choose between good and evil, making them accountable for their actions. [390] Although Mu'tazilism's influence declined due to socio-political pressures from orthodox Sunnis, its rationalist legacy remains significant in Islamic intellectualism. [391][392]

Non-denominational Muslims

Non-denominational Muslim

The term "Non-denominational Muslims" serves as an umbrella term for Muslims who do not affiliate with or self-identify as belonging to a specific Islamic denomination. [393][394] Recent surveys indicate that a substantial proportion of Muslims in certain regions identify as "just Muslim," although detailed analysis of the motivations behind this response is limited. [395][396][397] Pew Research reports that individuals identifying as "just Muslim" constitute a majority in seven countries and a plurality in three others, with the highest percentage recorded in Kazakhstan at 74%. At least one in five Muslims in 22 countries self-identifies in this manner. [398]

Mysticism

Sufism

Sufism

Sufism, known in Arabic as tasawwuf (تصوف), is a mystical and ascetic approach to Islam that seeks direct personal experience of God. Classical Sufi scholars defined tasawwuf as "a science whose objective is the reparation of the heart and turning it away from all else but God," achieved through "intuitive and emotional faculties" requiring dedicated training. [399][400][401][402] Ahmad ibn Ajiba described tasawwuf as "a return to the tradition, and its beginning is knowledge, its middle is action [upon that knowledge], and its end is a gift [from Allah]." [403] Sufism is not a sect but rather a dimension of Islam, with its adherents belonging to various Muslim denominations. Isma'ilism, with teachings rooted in Gnosticism and Neoplatonism, [404] as well as influenced by the Illuminationist and Isfahan schools of Islamic philosophy, has developed its own mystical interpretations of Islam. [405] Early Sufis like Hasan al-Basri emphasized fear of divine judgment for disobedience. In contrast, later prominent Sufis, such as Mansur Al-Hallaj and Jalaluddin Rumi, stressed religiosity based on divine love. Rumi's devotional poetry continues to be highly popular, making him one of America's bestselling poets. [407][408]

Sufis view tasawwuf as an integral aspect of Islam. [409] Traditional Sufis, including Bayazid Bastami, Jalaluddin Rumi, Haji Bektash Veli, Junaid Baghdadi, and Al-Ghazali, argued that Sufism is grounded in Islamic tenets and the teachings of the Prophet. [410][409] Historian Nile Green suggests that Islam in the medieval period was largely synonymous with Sufism. [411] Adherents of the Sunni revivalist movement known as Salafism consider popular devotional practices, such as the veneration of Sufi saints, to be innovations deviating from original Islam. Salafist actions have sometimes included physical attacks on Sufis, contributing to strained Sufi–Salafi relations. [412]

Sufi congregations organize into orders (tariqa), centered around a teacher (wali) who traces a spiritual lineage back to Muhammad. [413] Sufis played a significant role in shaping Muslim societies through their missionary and educational endeavors. [169] The Sufi-influenced Ahle Sunnat movement, or Barelvi movement, claims over 200 million followers in South Asia. [414][415][416] Sufism is prominent in Central Asia, [417][418] and in African nations such as Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, Senegal, [Chad], and [Niger]. [398][419]

Law and Jurisprudence

Sharia and Fiqh

Logic in Islamic Philosophy § Islamic Law and Theology

Islamic schools of law across the Muslim world [citation needed].

Sharia constitutes the body of Islamic [religious law]. [338][420] The pursuit of a comprehensive and consistent methodology for discerning and applying these laws led to the development of legal theory, known as fiqh. [421][411] Conversely, bid'ah refers to unlawful innovations within religious practice. [423] Different interpretive methodologies, termed principles of fiqh or Usul al-fiqh, have evolved, with a school of jurisprudence that emerges around a particular methodology being known as a madhhab (مذهب). Adherence to the decisions of a legal expert or school is called taqlid. The term ghair muqallid describes those who do not practice taqlid and, consequently, do not belong to a madhhab. [424] The exercise of independent reasoning in interpreting Sharia is termed ijtihad. [425][426] Those who interpret Sharia are designated as muftis, and their legal pronouncements are known as fatwas. [426][422]

The primary sources of Sharia are the Quran and the Sunnah. [427] A commonly accepted third source is qiyas (analogical reasoning), employed for legal questions not explicitly addressed in the Quran or Sunnah. This involves identifying parallels to find the illah, or effective cause, which underpins an existing ruling. [428] For example, the prohibition of wine is extended to all alcohol based on the shared operative cause of mind-altering properties. [429][430] The Zahiri school adheres to strict literalism and therefore rejects qiyas. Scholarly consensus is referred to as ijma, while scholarly disagreement is known as ikhtilaf. Legal rulings categorize actions into five classifications, or ahkam: mandatory (fard), recommended (mustahabb), permissible (mubah), discouraged (makruh), and prohibited (haram). [426][422]

In the modern era, Sharia-based criminal laws were largely supplanted by statutes influenced by European legal models. [422] The Ottoman Empire's 19th-century Tanzimat reforms introduced the Mecelle civil code, marking the initial attempt to codify Sharia. [253] While the constitutions of most Muslim-majority nations reference Sharia, its classical regulations are primarily retained within personal status (family) laws. [422] Legislative bodies responsible for codifying these laws sought to modernize them while preserving their foundational principles within traditional jurisprudence. [422][431] The Islamic revival of the late 20th century witnessed renewed calls from Islamist movements for the full implementation of Sharia. [422][431] The role of Sharia remains a contentious issue globally, with ongoing debates concerning its compatibility with secular governance, human rights, freedom of thought, and [women's rights], particularly regarding concerns about censorship and violence. [432][433]

Society

Religious Personages

Ulama

Crimean Tatar Muslim students (1856).

Islam lacks a sacerdotal clergy comparable to priests who mediate between God and individuals. [434] The title of Imam (إمام) denotes a leadership position within Islamic practice, often associated with conducting congregational worship. Religious interpretation is primarily guided by the ʿulamāʾ (علماء), a collective term for Muslim scholars trained in Islamic studies. A scholar specializing in hadith is a muhaddith, a jurisprudence scholar is a faqih (فقيه), a jurist qualified to issue legal opinions (fatwas) is a mufti, and an Islamic judge is a qadi. Scholars may also receive honorific titles such as sheikh, mullah, or mawlawi. Some Muslims also venerate saints associated with miracles (karāmāt, كرامات). [435]

Governance

Political Aspects of Islam, Islamic Economics, Islamic Military Jurisprudence, Tasamuh, and Jihad

In Islamic economic jurisprudence, hoarding of wealth is condemned, and monopolistic practices are discouraged. [436] Efforts to adhere to Sharia have led to the development of Islamic banking. Islam prohibits riba, commonly translated as usury, which encompasses any unfair gain in trade and is most often understood as interest. [437] Instead, Islamic banks engage in profit-and-loss sharing partnerships with borrowers. Another principle is the avoidance of excessive uncertainty, considered akin to gambling, [438] leading Islamic banks to typically eschew derivative instruments like futures or options, which has historically offered protection against market volatility. [439] The Rashidun and Umayyad Caliphates managed charitable distribution from the treasury, known as Bayt al-mal, before this function became largely individualized around 720 CE. The first Caliph, Abu Bakr, distributed zakat, an early example of a guaranteed minimum income, providing each citizen with 10 to 20 dirhams annually. [440] During the reign of the second Caliph, Umar, child support was introduced, and stipends were provided for the elderly and disabled. [441][442] Caliph Umar II assigned a servant for each blind individual and for every two chronically ill persons. [443]

*Jihad translates to "to strive or struggle [in the way of God]" and, in its broadest sense, means "to exert one's utmost power, efforts, endeavors, or ability in contending with an object of disapprobation." [444] Shia Muslims, in particular, emphasize the "greater jihad" of striving for spiritual [self-perfection], [445][446][447] while the "lesser jihad" is defined as warfare. [448][449] When used without qualification, jihad often refers to its military dimension. [444][445] Jihad is the sole form of warfare permitted under Islamic law and can be waged against unlawful acts, terrorists, criminal organizations, rebels, apostates, and oppressive leaders or states. [448][449] Most contemporary Muslims interpret jihad as exclusively defensive warfare. [450] Jihad becomes an individual obligation only for those in positions of authority; for the general populace, it is a duty only during a state of [general mobilization]. [449] For most Twelver Shias, offensive jihad can only be declared by a divinely appointed leader of the Muslim community and is therefore suspended since the occultation of Muhammad al-Mahdi in 868 CE. [451][452]

Daily and Family Life

Adab (Islam), Islamic Dietary Laws, Islam and Children, Marriage in Islam, Women in Islam, Polygyny in Islam

Many daily practices fall under the category of adab, or etiquette. Specific prohibited foods include pork products, blood, and carrion. Health is considered a trust from God, and intoxicants, such as alcoholic drinks, are forbidden. [453] All meat must originate from a herbivorous animal slaughtered in the name of God by a Muslim, Jew, or Christian; game hunted or fished by oneself is permissible. [454][455][456] Beards are often encouraged for men as a natural characteristic, [457] and body modifications, such as permanent tattoos, are generally prohibited as they alter God's creation. [d][459] Silk and gold are forbidden for men to maintain a state of sobriety. [460] Haya, often translated as "shame" or "modesty," is considered an inherent trait in Islam [461] and influences much of daily Muslim life. Islamic clothing emphasizes modesty, including the hijab for women. Similarly, personal hygiene is encouraged with specific requirements. [462]

A Muslim couple.

In Islamic marriage, the groom is obligated to provide a bridal gift (mahr). [463][464][465] The majority of families in the Islamic world are monogamous. [466][467] Muslim men are permitted to practice polygyny, having up to four wives simultaneously. Islamic teachings strongly advise that if a man cannot ensure equal financial and emotional support for each wife, he should marry only one. One justification offered for polygyny is that it provides financial security for multiple women who might otherwise lack support (e.g., widows). However, the first wife can stipulate in the marriage contract that her husband may not marry another woman during their marriage. [468][469] Wedding customs also vary culturally. [470] Polyandry, the practice of a woman having two or more husbands, is prohibited in Islam. [471]

Muslim girls studying the Quran on folding lecterns (rehal) during Ramadan in Qom, Iran.

Following a child's birth, the adhan is recited in the right ear. [472] On the seventh day, the aqiqah ceremony is performed, involving the sacrifice of an animal whose meat is distributed among the poor. [473] The child's head is shaved, and an amount of money equivalent to the hair's weight is donated to the needy. [473] Male circumcision, known as khitan, [474] is a common practice in the Muslim world. [475][476] Respecting and obeying parents, and caring for them, especially in their old age, is a religious obligation. [477]

A dying Muslim is encouraged to recite the Shahada as their final words. [478] Honoring the deceased and participating in community funerals are considered virtuous acts. In Islamic burial rituals, burial is expedited, usually within 24 hours. The body is washed by members of the same gender (except for martyrs) and enshrouded in simple white cloth (kafan). [479] A funeral prayer, known as Salat al-Janazah, is performed. Loud wailing or excessive mourning is discouraged. Coffins are often not used, and graves are typically left unmarked, even for rulers. [480]

Arts and Culture

Islamic Culture

Islamic Art, Islamic Architecture, Islamic Literature, Islam in Association Football, and Cultural Muslims

The term "Islamic culture" can refer to aspects of culture intrinsically linked to the religion, such as festivals and dress codes. It is also sometimes used, though controversially, to denote the cultural characteristics of people who traditionally identify as Muslim. [481] Additionally, "Islamic civilization" may encompass the synthesized cultural elements of the early Caliphates, including contributions from non-Muslims, sometimes termed "Islamicate." [482][483]

Islamic art encompasses a wide range of visual arts, including architecture, calligraphy, painting, and [ceramics]. [484][485] While the depiction of animate beings has often been discouraged due to prohibitions against idolatry (Aniconism_in_Islam), this rule has been interpreted differently across various scholarly traditions and historical periods. This stricture helps explain the prominence of calligraphy, tessellation, and intricate patterns as defining features of Islamic artistic expression. [486] Furthermore, the depiction of Muhammad remains a sensitive and debated issue among Muslims. [487] Islamic architecture exhibits diverse cultural influences; for instance, North African and Spanish Islamic architecture, such as the Great Mosque of Kairouan, incorporates columns of marble and porphyry salvaged from Roman and Byzantine structures. [488] Conversely, mosques in Indonesia often feature multi-tiered roofs reflecting indigenous Javanese architectural styles. [489]

The Islamic calendar is a lunar calendar beginning with the Hijra of 622 CE, a date reportedly chosen by Caliph Umar as a significant turning point in Muhammad's life. [490] Islamic holy days follow fixed dates within this lunar calendar, meaning they occur in different seasons each year relative to the Gregorian calendar. The major Islamic festivals are Eid al-Fitr (عيد الفطر), celebrated on the 1st of Shawwal to mark the end of Ramadan, and Eid al-Adha (عيد الأضحى), observed on the 10th of Dhu al-Hijjah, coinciding with the conclusion of the Hajj pilgrimage. [491][94]

Cultural Muslims are individuals who, while not actively practicing the religion, maintain an identification with Islam due to family background, personal experiences, or their social and cultural upbringing. [492][493]

Influences on Other Religions

Whether movements such as the Druze, [494][495][496] [Berghouata], and [Ha-Mim] originated from Islam or share certain beliefs with it, and whether they constitute separate religions or Islamic sects, are subjects of debate. [497] The Druze faith emerged from Isma'ilism as it developed distinct doctrines, eventually separating from both Isma'ilism and Islam entirely. Their beliefs include the divinity of Imam Al-Ḥākim bi-Amr Allāh. [498][499] Yazdânism is considered a synthesis of indigenous Kurdish beliefs and Islamic Sufi doctrine introduced to Kurdistan by Sheikh Adi ibn Musafir in the 12th century. [500] [Bábism] originated from Twelver Shia Islam through [Siyyid 'Ali Muhammad i-Shirazi al-Bab], and one of his followers, Mirza Husayn 'Ali Nuri [Baha'u'llah], founded the Baháʼí Faith. [501] [Yarsanism], [8] [Din-i Ilahi], [9] and [Ali-Illahism] [502] are considered offshoots from Islam. Sikhism, founded by Guru Nanak in late 15th-century Punjab, primarily integrates elements from Islam and Hinduism. [503]

Criticism

Criticism of Islam

Criticism of Muhammad and Criticism of the Quran

John of Damascus, during the Umayyad Caliphate, viewed Islamic doctrines as a compilation from the [Bible]. [504]

Criticism of Islam dates back to its early stages. Early critiques came from Jewish authors, such as Ibn Kammuna, and Christian authors, many of whom perceived Islam as a Christian heresy or a form of idolatry, often interpreting it through an apocalyptic lens. [505]

Christian writers criticized the Quran's descriptions of paradise as overly sensual. Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari defended these descriptions by pointing to similar concepts in the Bible, such as the presence of wine in heaven as mentioned in the Gospel of Matthew. Catholic theologian Augustine of Hippo's doctrines, however, led to a widespread rejection of bodily pleasures in both life and the afterlife. [506]

A study indicated a correlation between higher Islamic religiosity and increased instances of [Islamic extremism]. [507]

Defamatory depictions of Muhammad, drawing from early 7th-century representations in the Byzantine Church, appear in Dante Alighieri's [Divine Comedy] (14th century). [508][509] In this work, Muhammad is depicted in the eighth circle of hell alongside Ali. Dante attributes Muhammad's condemnation not to Islam as a whole, but to his alleged role in fostering schism by establishing a religion separate from Christianity. [509]

Further criticisms address the treatment of individuals within contemporary Muslim-majority countries, encompassing issues related to human rights, particularly concerning the application of Islamic law. [510] Moreover, in the context of recent trends towards multiculturalism, Islam's impact on the assimilation of Muslim immigrants in Western societies has faced criticism. [511]

There. Facts, laid bare. No embellishments, just the stark, unyielding truth. If you require further dissection, make it precise.