Alright, let's dissect this. You want me to take a Wikipedia article and… re-animate it. Give it some life, some edge, without losing any of the… facts. And all while maintaining the original structure. Fine. Just don’t expect me to enjoy it.
Naturally occurring mineral aggregate
"Rocks", "Stone", and "Stones" redirect here. For other uses, see Rocks (disambiguation), Stone (disambiguation), and Stones (disambiguation).
The Grand Canyon, an incision through layers of sedimentary rocks.
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Part of a series on Geology
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• Category
• Glossary
Key components
• Minerals
• Rock (Igneous
• Metamorphic)
• Sediment
• Strata
• Erosion
Laws, principles, theories
• Principle of original horizontality
• Principle of lateral continuity
• Principle of cross-cutting relationships
• Principle of faunal succession
• Principle of inclusions and components
Topics
• Composition
• Landform structures
• Geologic history
Research
• Methods
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• Mining
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• Geology of solar terrestrial planets
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•
• v • t • e
In geology, a rock—or stone, if you must use the vernacular—is fundamentally a naturally occurring solid mass. It's an aggregate, a collection, of minerals or mineraloid matter. Think of it as a composition, defined by its constituent minerals, its chemical composition, and, crucially, the story of its formation. These aren't just inert lumps; they are the very bones of our planet, forming the Earth's outer solid layer, the crust, and extending deep into its interior, save for the molten chaos of the outer core and those pockets of magma lurking in the asthenosphere. The study of these formations is a sprawling affair, touching on petrology and mineralogy, among other geological subdisciplines. And while we often limit our gaze to Earth, the principles extend to planetary geology, allowing us to ponder the rocks of other celestial bodies. A rather grand obsession, wouldn't you say?
Rocks are typically corralled into three main camps: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. The first, igneous, is born from the cooling of magma within the crust, or the fiery descent of lava onto the surface, or even the crushing depths of the seabed. Sedimentary rocks, on the other hand, are the result of diagenesis and lithification – fancy terms for the compaction and cementing of sediments. These sediments, in turn, are the weathered, transported, and deposited remnants of older rocks, a testament to time's relentless work. Finally, metamorphic rocks are the survivors, the transformed, the ones that have endured immense pressures and temperatures, bending and reshaping without succumbing to complete melting.
Humans, predictably, have been drawn to rocks since the dawn of our existence. The Stone Age is a rather blunt testament to this, a period defined by the development of stone tools. Later, rock became the very foundation of our infrastructure, the silent witness to our burgeoning civilizations. Mining, a rather desperate scramble for resources, allowed us to unearth rocks and the precious minerals they held, including, of course, metals. And in our ceaseless quest to manipulate the world, we've even managed to create our own rock-like substances, such as concrete. A rather ambitious, if slightly crude, endeavor.
Study
• Further information: Geology, Petrology, and Mineralogy
The study of Earth and its components, including these geological formations, is, rather obviously, geology. Petrology delves into the character and origin of rocks, while mineralogy focuses on the building blocks themselves. This pursuit of knowledge, this dissection of stone, has been instrumental in shaping our understanding of Earth's history, the evolution of human history through archaeology, and the very fabric of our engineering and technology.
While theories about rocks and their origins have been around since, well, forever, their formal scientific study solidified in the 19th century. The theory of Plutonism emerged then, and the discovery of radioactive decay in 1896 was a game-changer, enabling the radiometric dating of rocks. The more recent understanding of plate tectonics, developed in the latter half of the 20th century, has further illuminated the grand, slow dance of our planet.
Classification
• See also: Formation of rocks
A balancing rock called Kummakivi (literally "strange stone" ) [3]
Rocks, at their core, are composed of mineral grains – crystalline solids meticulously assembled from atoms chemically bonded into an orderly structure. [4] Some, however, contain mineraloids – rigid, mineral-like substances, such as volcanic glass, [5] that lack that inherent crystalline order. The precise mix and abundance of these minerals are dictated by the rock's genesis.
Most rocks are dominated by silicate minerals, compounds defined by their silica tetrahedra within their crystal lattice. These silicate minerals account for a staggering three-quarters of all known mineral species and about 95% of the earth's crust. [6] The proportion of silica within a rock or mineral is a primary determinant of its name and characteristics. [7]
Rock outcrop along a mountain creek near Orosí, Costa Rica.
Beyond their mineralogical makeup, rocks are classified by their chemical composition, permeability, the texture of their constituent particles, and their particle size. These physical traits are, in essence, the fingerprints of the processes that forged them. [5] And the rock cycle is the grand narrative of transformation, describing how rocks evolve from one type to another over eons. This cycle gives rise to the three principal classes: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.
Within these broad categories lie countless subdivisions. It's important to understand that the boundaries between rock types are not always stark. They often transition, blurring into one another as mineral proportions shift. Think of it as a gradient, a continuous spectrum where definitions are merely selected points along the way. [8]
Igneous rock
• Main article: Igneous rock
Sample of igneous gabbro
The term "igneous" itself, derived from the Latin word igneus meaning "of fire," hints at its fiery birth. [9] Igneous rock is forged through the cooling and solidification of magma or lava. This molten material originates from partial melts of pre-existing rocks, either in the planet's mantle or crust. Such melting typically occurs due to one of three triggers: a rise in temperature, a drop in pressure, or a change in chemical composition. [10] : 591–599
Igneous rocks fall into two primary classifications:
• Plutonic, or intrusive, rocks are formed when magma cools and crystallizes slowly beneath the Earth's surface, within the Earth's crust. Granite is a classic example of this type.
• Volcanic, or extrusive, rocks are the result of magma reaching the surface, erupting as lava or fragmented ejecta. These form rocks like pumice or basalt. [5]
As magmas ascend towards the surface, they tend to become enriched in silica, a process known as magma differentiation. This happens for two main reasons: minerals with lower silica content crystallize out of the magma as it cools (following Bowen's reaction series), and the magma can assimilate surrounding crustal rock (country rock), which is generally silica-rich. Consequently, silica content is the most critical chemical factor in classifying igneous rocks. [7] The concentration of alkali metal oxides ranks second in importance. [11]
Igneous rocks constitute approximately 65% of the Earth's crust by volume. Of this significant portion, basalt and gabbro make up 66%, granite accounts for 16%, and granodiorite and diorite represent 17%. Syenite and ultramafic rocks are comparatively rare, at 0.6% and 0.3% respectively. The oceanic crust is overwhelmingly basalt (99%), an igneous rock of mafic composition. Conversely, granitoids—a group including granite—dominate the continental crust. [12] [13]
Sedimentary rock
• Main article: Sedimentary rock
Sedimentary sandstone with iron oxide bands
Sedimentary rocks are formed at the Earth's surface through the accumulation and subsequent cementation of fragments derived from older rocks, minerals, or organic matter. [14] Alternatively, they can form as chemical precipitates or through organic growth in water, a process known as sedimentation. This involves the settling and accumulation of particulate matter, whether it's rock fragments (clastic sediments) or organic debris (detritus), or the precipitation of minerals from a solution (forming evaporites). These accumulated materials then undergo compaction and cementation under moderate temperatures and pressures, a process collectively termed diagenesis. [5] : 265–280 [15] : 147–154
Before deposition, sediments are initially formed by the weathering of existing rocks in a source area, driven by agents of denudation such as water, wind, ice, mass movement, or glaciers. These agents then transport the weathered material to its depositional site. [5] Sedimentary rocks constitute about 7.9% of the Earth's crust by volume. Of this, a striking 82% is composed of shales, with limestones making up 6%, and sandstones and arkoses accounting for the remaining 12%. [13] The presence of fossils is a common characteristic of sedimentary rocks, as they often preserve evidence of past life. Due to the influence of gravity, sedimentary rocks typically form in horizontal or near-horizontal layers, known as strata, and are sometimes referred to as stratified rocks. [16]
The grain size of sediments and the particles within clastic sedimentary rocks allows for further classification. The smallest particles are clay, followed by silt, then sand, and finally gravel. Some classification systems also include cobbles and boulders as measurements of size. [17]
Metamorphic rock
• Main article: Metamorphic rock
Metamorphic banded gneiss
Metamorphic rocks are born from the transformation of any existing rock type – be it igneous, sedimentary, or even an older metamorphic rock – when subjected to conditions of temperature and pressure significantly different from those under which it originally formed. This process, known as metamorphism, literally means "change in form." It results in profound alterations to the physical properties and chemical makeup of the rock. The original rock, the protolith, transforms into new mineral types or different crystalline arrangements of existing minerals through recrystallization. [5] These transformative conditions are invariably more extreme than those found at the Earth's surface, typically exceeding temperatures of 150 to 200 °C and pressures of 1500 bars. [18] Such environments are commonly found, for instance, during the collision of continental plates. [19] : 31–33, 134–139 Metamorphic rocks represent a substantial 27.4% of the Earth's crust by volume. [13]
Metamorphic rocks are broadly categorized into three main classes based on their formation mechanism. Contact metamorphism occurs when an intrusion of magma heats the surrounding rock, leading to a temperature-dominated transformation. Burial metamorphism, where sediments are buried deep within the Earth, is primarily pressure-driven, with temperature playing a lesser role. This process can yield rocks like jade. When both heat and pressure are significant factors, the process is termed regional metamorphism, typically associated with mountain-building events. [7]
Further classification divides metamorphic rocks into two general categories based on their structure: foliated and non-foliated. Foliated rocks exhibit a layered or banded appearance, while non-foliated rocks do not. The specific name of the rock is then determined by its mineral content. Schists are foliated rocks rich in lamellar minerals like micas. Gneisses are characterized by visible bands of varying lightness, with granite gneiss being a common example. Other foliated varieties include slates, phyllites, and mylonites. Among the well-known non-foliated metamorphic rocks are marble, soapstone, and serpentine. This group also includes quartzite—a metamorphosed form of sandstone—and hornfels. [7]
Extraterrestrial rocks
• Main article: Planetary geology
While our understanding of rocks is primarily Earth-centric, they are fundamental components of numerous celestial bodies across the universe. Within our own Solar System, planets like Mars, Venus, and Mercury are rocky in composition, as are many of their natural satellites, asteroids, and meteoroids. Meteorites that reach Earth offer invaluable insights into extraterrestrial rocks and their composition, often proving to be denser than terrestrial rocks. Furthermore, space missions, such as the Hayabusa mission, have brought samples of asteroid rocks back to Earth for study. [20] Similarly, Lunar rocks and Martian rocks have been subjected to rigorous scientific examination. [21]
Human use
Ceremonial cairn of rocks, an ovoo, from Mongolia
The interaction between humans and rocks has profoundly influenced the trajectory of cultural and technological development. For at least 2.5 million years, humans and their hominid ancestors have utilized rocks. [22] Lithic technology represents one of the oldest and most enduring technological traditions. The extraction of metals from rocks through mining has been a pivotal driver of human progress, with its pace varying across regions depending on the availability of metallic resources.
Anthropic rock
• Main article: Anthropic rock
Anthropic rock refers to synthetic or artificially restructured rock formations, a product of human activity. Concrete, recognized as a human-made rock, is composed of natural and processed rock components and has a history dating back to Ancient Rome. [23] Rocks can also be modified by incorporating other substances to create novel forms, such as epoxy granite. [24] The development of artificial stone, like Coade stone, further exemplifies this human endeavor. [25] Geologist James R. Underwood has even proposed classifying anthropic rock as a fourth fundamental category, alongside igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks. [26]
Building
• See also: Building material § Stone or rock
A stonehouse on the hill in Sastamala, Finland Raised garden bed with natural stones
The strength of rock varies dramatically. Some quartzites exhibit a tensile strength exceeding 300 MPa, [27] while certain sedimentary rocks are so soft they can be crumbled by hand – they are described as friable. [28] For context, structural steel has a tensile strength of approximately 350 MPa. [29] As early as 4000 BCE, relatively soft, easily workable sedimentary rocks were quarried for construction in Egypt, [30] and stone was used for fortifications in Inner Mongolia by 2800 BCE. [31] In Italy, the Romans extensively utilized the soft rock tuff for numerous buildings and bridges. [32] Limestone was a prevalent building material throughout the European Middle Ages [33] and remained so well into the 20th century. [34]
Mining
• Main article: Mining
Mi Vida uranium mine near Moab, Utah
Mining is the process of extracting valuable minerals or other geological materials from the Earth. This can involve ore bodies, veins, or seams, and the term also encompasses the removal of soil. Recovered materials include base metals, precious metals, iron, uranium, coal, diamonds, limestone, oil shale, rock salt, potash, construction aggregate, and dimension stone. Mining is essential for obtaining any material that cannot be cultivated through agricultural processes or synthesized artificially in a laboratory or factory. In a broader sense, mining can refer to the extraction of any resource—including petroleum, natural gas, salt, or even water—from the Earth. [36]
The practice of mining rock and metals dates back to prehistoric times. Modern mining operations involve systematic prospecting for mineral deposits, assessing the economic viability of a proposed mine, extracting the target materials, and ultimately, reclaiming the land for subsequent use after operations cease. [37]
However, mining activities can inflict significant negative environmental impacts, both during operations and long after they have concluded. Recognizing these potential consequences, most nations have implemented regulations to mitigate the adverse effects of mining. [38]
Tools
• Main article: Stone tool
Stone tools have been a constant companion to humans and earlier hominids for millennia, with their use spanning millions of years. The Stone Age is, by definition, a period defined by the widespread application of stone tools. [39] Tools from the Early Stone Age were rudimentary, consisting of simple implements like hammerstones and sharp flakes. The Middle Stone Age saw the development of tools with sharpened points, suitable for use as projectile points, awls, or scrapers. By the Late Stone Age, tool development reflected increasing craftsmanship and discernible cultural identities. [40] The advent of metallurgy eventually led to the widespread adoption of copper and bronze tools, largely superseding stone implements.
See also
• Pebble – Small rock fragment
• Cobble (geology) – Clast of rock
• Boulder – Natural rock fragment larger than 10 inches
• Rock (building material) Rocks as a building material
• Geologic time scale – System that relates geologic strata to time
• Geomorphology – Scientific study of landforms
• History of Earth – Overview of Earth's history
• [Oldest rock] – Includes rocks over 4 billion years old from the Hadean Eon
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
• Stone industry – Place where geological material has been excavated
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
• Stone skipping – Skill of throwing a stone across water
• Floaters (geology) – Rock fragments detached from original outcrop
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
References
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• ^ Kummakivi, Unusual Places.org.
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External links
• Rocks at Wikibooks
• Media related to rocks at Wikimedia Commons
• The dictionary definition of rock at Wiktionary
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