Ah, the Satellite Instructional Television Experiment. A rather quaint little endeavor, wasn't it? Trying to beam knowledge into the hinterlands via the heavens. One might almost call it… ambitious. Or perhaps, naive. Let's dissect this historical footnote, shall we?
Satellite Instructional Television Experiment
The Satellite Instructional Television Experiment, or SITE as it's so concisely known, was an experimental foray into the burgeoning field of satellite communications that took root in India back in 1975. It was a collaborative effort, a handshake across continents between NASA, the American space agency with its penchant for grand gestures, and the Indian Space Research Organisation, then a fledgling entity with a thirst for technological advancement. The grand design? To bring the magic of television, and by extension, education, to the doorsteps of rural India.
The stated objectives were, of course, couched in noble terms: to illuminate the minds of the financially disadvantaged and academically underserved with crucial information via satellite. But let's not overlook the secondary, perhaps more pragmatic, objective: to equip India with the hard-won technical acumen necessary to navigate the complex world of satellite communications. A two-birds-with-one-stone kind of deal, really.
This grand experiment, a year-long affair from August 1, 1975, to July 31, 1976, cast its digital net over more than 2,400 villages scattered across 20 districts in six Indian states and territories. The content itself was curated by the ever-present All India Radio, and the delivery system was none other than NASA's ATS-6 satellite, positioned obligingly above India for the duration. It wasn't a solo act, though. A chorus of international organizations, including the United Nations Development Programme, UNESCO, UNICEF, and the International Telecommunication Union, lent their support, adding a veneer of global goodwill to the proceedings. The experiment, predictably, was declared a success, paving the way for India's own ambitious satellite program, the Indian National Satellite System. It was a powerful demonstration, a clear signal that even nascent nations could harness cutting-edge technology to address their pressing socio-economic needs. And, as it turned out, SITE wasn't just an Indian spectacle; it inspired similar ventures worldwide, underscoring the profound influence of satellite television in the realm of education.
Background
The satellite that played the starring role, the ATS-6, was a product of NASA's ambitious Applications Technology Satellites program in the 1960s. The agency was keen to test the feasibility of directly broadcasting television signals to terrestrial receivers via satellite. India, Brazil, and the People's Republic of China were initially identified as potential testbeds. The ideal candidate needed to be geographically expansive and situated relatively close to the equator to optimize the satellite's direct broadcast capabilities. China, at the time, was an enigma to the U.S., and Brazil's population was largely urbanized, which would have limited the broadcast's reach to the intended rural demographic. Thus, India emerged as the sole contender. However, the political climate, marked by a somewhat strained relationship between the U.S. and India, meant the U.S. couldn't simply extend an offer. Instead, they waited for India to make the first move, a subtle dance of diplomacy and national aspiration.
Meanwhile, India was charting its own course in space under the visionary leadership of Vikram Sarabhai. Intrigued by the potential of satellites for communication, India approached UNESCO to conduct a feasibility study. In late 1967, a UNESCO expert mission arrived in India, and their report confirmed the viability of such a project. Following this, a trio of Indian engineers embarked on a tour of the U.S. and France in June 1967, a trip that solidified their belief in India's capacity to meet the project's technical demands. Subsequently, in 1968, the Indian government established the National Satellite Communications Group, or SATCOM, to explore the potential applications of a synchronous communications satellite for the nation. This multidisciplinary group comprised representatives from various cabinet ministries, ISRO, and All India Radio (AIR), and their recommendation was clear: India should leverage NASA's ATS-6 satellite for an experiment in educational television.
Arnold Frutkin, then the director of international programs at NASA, facilitated the crucial connection, ensuring that Vikram Sarabhai would approach NASA for assistance. Sarabhai recognized this as a monumental opportunity for India to not only expand its nascent space program but also to cultivate a generation of Indian scientists and engineers. The agreement for SITE was formally inked between the Indian Department of Atomic Energy and NASA in 1969, setting the stage for the experiment, which officially commenced on August 1, 1975.
SITE Milestones
The journey of SITE was punctuated by a series of critical milestones, each a testament to the meticulous planning and execution involved:
- September 18, 1969: The Memorandum of Understanding between India and the USA was signed, and the Experimental Satellite (ESD) was established.
- April 1, 1970: The first joint India-USA Site meeting took place, solidifying the collaborative framework.
- June 1, 1971: The Audio-Visual Information Dissemination (AVID) group, later known as the Satellite Systems Group (SSG), was formed.
- August 1974: The Base Production Centres of All India Radio became operational, ready to generate content.
- August 15, 1974: The Bombay SITE Studio was commissioned, a hub for creative output.
- November 15, 1974: The deployment phase for the Direct Reception System (DRS) commenced.
- January 1975: The Experimental Satellite Communications Earth Station (ESCES) at Ahmedabad became operational.
- February 1, 1975: The selection of villages for the experiment was completed.
- March 1975: The second phase of DRS deployment began, and ESCES and DRS underwent crucial checkout procedures using a satellite simulator.
- April 1975: The tenth ISRO-NASA meeting convened, and the final DRS units were delivered by ECIL.
- May 8, 1975: The first program was produced in the Ahmedabad studio, a tangible output of the collaborative effort.
- May 21, 1975: The ATS-6 satellite began its journey from its previous orbital position at 94°W.
- June 1975: ESCES conducted checkout procedures using the Intelsat satellite.
- June 13, 1975: The ATS-6 satellite became visible to ESCES, a critical step for signal reception.
- June 14, 1975: DRS units in the villages successfully received signals from the satellite.
- June 17, 1975: The Amritsar Earth Station received signals, expanding the ground segment's reach.
- June 27, 1975: The ATS-6 satellite reached its designated orbital position at 35° E.
- July 3, 1975: The Delhi Earth Station became operational, adding another vital ground link.
- July 3-5, 1975: Comprehensive checkout procedures for the DRS were carried out.
- July 7, 1975: The Nadiad TV Transmitter was commissioned, and the baseline for the SITE Impact Survey (Adults) was completed.
- July 9-10, 1975: A demonstration of the SITE system was presented to the Chairman of ISRO.
- August 1, 1975: The Satellite Instructional Television Experiment officially began.
Objectives
The Memorandum of Understanding between India and the U.S. meticulously outlined the project's objectives, bifurcating them into general and specific categories. The overarching, general objectives were designed to:
- Acquire invaluable experience in the development, testing, and management of a satellite-based instructional television system, particularly within the challenging context of rural environments, and to identify optimal system parameters for such endeavors.
- Showcase the transformative potential of satellite technology in accelerating the development of effective mass communication channels in emerging nations.
- Demonstrate the practical efficacy of satellite broadcast television as a tool for educating village populations.
- Catalyze national development in India, with profound implications across managerial, economic, technological, and social spheres.
From India's perspective, the primary social objectives were laser-focused on imparting vital knowledge concerning family planning, agricultural best practices, and fostering a sense of national unity. Secondary objectives included providing general education for both school-aged children and adults, facilitating teacher training, enhancing occupational skills, and improving public health and hygiene through the powerful medium of satellite broadcasts. Beyond these social aspirations, India was keen to gain hands-on expertise in every technical facet of the system, from the intricacies of broadcast and reception facilities to the creation of compelling television programming.
The primary objective for the U.S., on the other hand, was centered on the technical validation of an efficient, medium-power, wide-band FM transmitter operating within the 800–900 MHz range. They sought to gather critical data and experience regarding the utilization of this specific space application.
International Collaboration
A joint working group comprising scientists from both ISRO and NASA was established even before the ink dried on the Memorandum of Understanding. This dedicated group embarked on an in-depth study to assess the feasibility of employing a communications satellite for television broadcasting within India. Following the signing of the MoU, a series of rigorous review meetings were conducted between the scientists of both nations. Indian personnel undertook visits to NASA facilities to gain firsthand knowledge of front-end converters and the operational nuances of earth stations. In response to India's request, the Intelsat-III and Arvi Earth Station organization generously provided complimentary satellite time for crucial pre-SITE testing phases.
The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) made a significant financial contribution of 1.5 million to facilitate the creation of a television studio in Ahmedabad and a television transmitter in Pij, located in the Kheda district. Their support extended to the establishment of a TV Training Institute, tasked with equipping numerous program production staff who would subsequently join All India Radio to contribute to the SITE initiative. UNESCO served as the primary executing agency for the broader project. UNICEF also played a vital role by sponsoring the production of 21 film modules, expertly crafted by Shyam Benegal, a renowned Indian filmmaker. This collaboration fostered a rich exchange between filmmakers and folk artists, a synergy that saw Shyam Benegal later incorporate many of these talented individuals into his critically acclaimed children's feature film, Charandas Chor (1975).
Technical Details
The television programming was a decentralized affair, with four distinct Base Production Centres strategically located in Delhi, Cuttack, Hyderabad, and a dedicated ISRO studio in Mumbai. Each of these centres was equipped with a production studio, three IVC tape recorders, two 16 mm projectors, a slide projector within the Telecine unit, and essential audio equipment, including tape desks and turntables. Furthermore, each center boasted 2–3 fully equipped synchronized sound camera units, an editing table (with Delhi uniquely possessing two), and an in-house film processing plant. A dedicated sound dubbing studio, outfitted with a pilot tone recording plant and an audio mixing console, completed the technical arsenal.
The television programs, meticulously produced by the Indian government across these four studios, were transmitted at a frequency of 6 GHz to the ATS-6 satellite. This uplink signal originated from one of two ground stations situated in Delhi and Ahmedabad. The satellite then re-transmitted these signals at 860 MHz, enabling direct reception by approximately 2,000 villages through community television receivers equipped with 3-meter parabolic antennas. Standard television stations also intercepted these signals, rebroadcasting them to an additional 3,000 villages via the conventional VHF television band. Each television signal was accompanied by two audio channels, designed to carry the broadcast in the two primary languages prevalent within each designated cluster. This sophisticated reception setup was known as the Direct Reception System (DRS). Beyond these direct broadcasts, the earth station in Ahmedabad was linked via microwave to a television transmitter ingeniously installed in the village of Pij. The Delhi studio, in turn, was connected to the terrestrial television transmitters of All India Radio. A receive-only station was also established in Amritsar and subsequently linked to the local television transmitter.
While the DRS handled terrestrial broadcasting for major urban centers and direct satellite reception for remote villages, it left a gap for smaller towns where television set density was higher than in villages but not as concentrated as in cities. To bridge this divide, the concept of a low-power, limited rebroadcast (LRB) TV transmitter system was conceived. An LRB system typically comprised a simple receiver with a 4.5-meter chicken-mesh parabolic antenna, coupled with a low-noise block converter serving as the front-end for a low-power TV transmitter situated at the same location. Two potential sites, Sambalpur in Orissa (serving 75 villages) and Muzaffarpur in Bihar (serving 110 villages), were initially identified for the implementation of LRB transmitter systems. This experiment was anticipated to yield valuable data on the comparative advantages and disadvantages of DRS versus LRB systems. However, due to prevailing financial constraints, these two proposed LRBs were ultimately shelved. Instead, an LRB was eventually established at the Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SHAR), Sriharikota.
Village Selection
Given the finite satellite transmission time, a strategic decision was made to limit the installation of direct reception receivers to 2,400 villages, strategically distributed across six distinct regions of the country. The selection of these areas was guided by a dual set of criteria: technical feasibility and social impact potential. A specialized computer program, developed at ISRO, was instrumental in streamlining this selection process. Recognizing that one of the experiment's core aims was to gauge television's efficacy as a development tool, the chosen villages were deliberately selected for their socio-economic backwardness. According to the 1971 Census of India, states with the highest concentration of backward districts included Orissa, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal, and Karnataka. Ultimately, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal were excluded from the primary SITE program, as they were projected to receive terrestrial television services by the time SITE concluded. Consequently, SITE was rolled out in twenty districts spanning the remaining six states. Each of these selected states was designated as a "cluster." Within each cluster, three to four districts, each comprising approximately 1,000 villages, were identified. Finally, around 400 villages were selected within each cluster to participate in the experiment. A sobering reality emerged: nearly 80% of the villages chosen for SITE lacked electricity in the buildings designated for the SITE television sets. To address this critical infrastructure gap, a special initiative, dubbed "Operation Electricity," was launched to ensure timely electrification of these villages prior to SITE's commencement. A subset of 150 villages would be equipped with television sets powered by solar cells and batteries, a testament to innovative problem-solving. These specialized sets were ingeniously designed by Indian engineers, with crucial assistance from NASA.
The table below details the clusters selected for the SITE program:
| Cluster | District(s) | Maintenance Centers |
|---|---|---|
| Andhra Pradesh | Hyderabad, Kurnool, Medak, Mahbubnagar | Hyderabad, Nandyal, Sangareddy, Nagarkurnool |
| Karnataka | Kalaburagi, Raichur, Bijapur | Gulbarga, Bagalkot, Raichur, Bijapur |
| Bihar | Muzaffarpur, Champaran, Saharsa, Darbhanga | Muzaffarpur, Motihari, Saharsa, Darbhanga, Samastipur |
| Madhya Pradesh | Raipur*, Bilaspur*, Durg* | Raipur, Mahasamund, Bilaspur, Rajnandgaon |
| Orissa | Sambalpur, Dhenkanal, Baudh Khandmals | Sambalpur, Dhenkanal, Angul, Boudh |
| Rajasthan | Jaipur, Kota, Sawai Madhopur | Jaipur, Chomu, Kota, Gangapur |
* Note: These districts are now part of the state of Chhattisgarh.
Programming
All India Radio bore the primary responsibility for program generation, with content development undertaken in close consultation with the government. Specialized committees focused on education, agriculture, health, and family planning were instrumental in defining program priorities, which were then communicated to AIR.
Two distinct categories of programs were produced: educational television (ETV) and instructional television (ITV). ETV programs were specifically tailored for school children, featuring engaging and creative educational content, broadcast for 1.5 hours during school hours. During holidays, this time slot was repurposed for Teacher Training Programmes, designed to equip approximately 100,000 primary school teachers over the course of SITE. The ITV programs, on the other hand, were targeted at adult audiences, with a particular focus on the illiterate population. These were broadcast for 2.5 hours in the evenings, covering essential topics such as health, hygiene, family planning, nutrition, improved agricultural techniques, and significant national events. Thus, the daily broadcast schedule comprised four hours of programming, divided into two distinct transmissions. The intended audience was segmented into four linguistic groups – Hindi, Oriya, Telugu, and Kannada – and programs were produced in the language dominant within each respective cluster.
Acknowledging the linguistic and cultural diversity across India, it was agreed that all core programs would be cluster-specific, delivered in the primary language of the region. A concise commentary, summarizing the program's essence, would be provided on the secondary audio channel to maintain audience engagement in other language regions. All clusters would also receive 30 minutes of common programming, including news, broadcast exclusively in Hindi.
Here is an illustrative example of an evening transmission schedule, valid from November 1st to March 31st:
| Time Slot | Duration (Mins.) | Bihar/Madhya Pradesh/Rajasthan | Common Programme | Duration (Mins.) | Orissa | Duration (Mins.) | Andhra Pradesh/Karnataka |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 6:00 - 7:00 | 10 | Agriculture (MP) | News (all clusters) | 10 | Agriculture | 10 | Agriculture (AP) |
| 7:00 - 7:30 | 20 | Cultural | 10 | Cultural | 10 | Cultural (Urdu) | |
| 7:30 - 7:50 | 10 | Health | 10 | Cultural (Karnataka) | |||
| 7:50 - 8:30 | 15 | General Education/Information (Film) | 10 | General Education Community Matters (Karnataka) | |||
| 5 | Short Film |
Evaluation
The critical task of social research and evaluation for SITE was entrusted to ISRO's dedicated SITE Research and Evaluation Cell (REC). This cell comprised a team of approximately 100 individuals strategically positioned within each SITE cluster, at the SITE studio in Mumbai, and at the REC's headquarters in Ahmedabad. The research framework was meticulously finalized by the SITE Social Science Research Co-ordination Committee, under the distinguished chairmanship of Dr. M. S. Gore, the Director of the Tata Institute of Social Sciences in Bombay. The impact on primary school children was assessed through a collaborative project involving ISRO and the National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT). The overall evaluation design was structured into three distinct phases. The initial phase, known as formative or input research, involved an in-depth study of the potential audience's characteristics and needs. The second phase, process evaluation, was conducted throughout the operational lifespan of SITE, providing crucial real-time feedback on villagers' reactions to various programs. The third and final phase, summative evaluation, encompassed a series of diverse studies designed to quantify the overall impact of SITE. These included the Impact Survey (Adults) to measure the effects on the adult population, the SITE Impact Survey Children (SIS-C) to assess the impact on school children, and a qualitative anthropology study aimed at gauging, at a macro level, the societal shifts engendered by television in rural communities.
In parallel with the social evaluation, a comprehensive technical evaluation was also undertaken, providing invaluable data to guide India's future satellite system development. All major sub-systems of the earth station underwent rigorous testing and evaluation prior to the launch of SITE. This rigorous testing regime involved initial simulations using a spacecraft simulator provided by NASA, followed by testing with the Indian Ocean Intelsat satellite, and culminating in tests using the ATS-6 satellite itself. Every component of the Direct Reception System was subjected to thorough examination. The television sets themselves were tested by the British Aircraft Corporation, and the 3-meter antenna underwent extensive testing before its final design was approved. Crucially, data on failure rates was meticulously collected, and an analysis of the first 1,800 failures was conducted to inform the design of subsequent DRS systems.
Impact
As stipulated in the original agreement, the SITE program concluded in July 1976. NASA, despite fervent appeals from Indian villagers, journalists, and notable figures such as the celebrated author Arthur C. Clarke (who was presented with a SITE television set in Sri Lanka), proceeded to relocate its ATS satellite away from India. The transmissions from SITE had a demonstrably significant impact on the participating Indian villages. For the entire duration of the experiment, thousands of villagers congregated around the television sets, engrossed in the broadcasts. Sociological studies were conducted to analyze the social impact and viewership trends. These studies revealed that general interest and viewership peaked during the initial months of the program, with as many as 200 to 600 individuals per television set. However, viewership gradually declined, settling between 60 and 80 individuals per set. This decline was attributed to a confluence of factors, including the development of faults in the television equipment, intermittent electricity supply, hardware defects, and, not insignificantly, the villagers' increasing preoccupation with their domestic and agricultural responsibilities. Nevertheless, the impact on the rural populace was most pronounced in the domains of agriculture and family planning. A substantial 52% of viewers reported a willingness to adopt the new knowledge and practices acquired through the broadcasts.
Similar experimental projects were undertaken in diverse regions, including the Appalachian region, Rocky Mountains, Alaska, Canada, China, and Latin America, during the mid-seventies and early eighties. These initiatives collectively underscored the pivotal role that satellite television could play in disseminating education across disparate geographical and cultural landscapes.
Prior to SITE, the prevailing focus in television broadcasting was on terrestrial transmission methods. However, SITE unequivocally demonstrated India's capacity to leverage advanced technology to address the nation's pressing socio-economic needs. This revelation spurred a heightened emphasis on satellite broadcasting within India. ISRO subsequently initiated preparations for a comprehensive, country-wide satellite system. Following a series of advanced technical experiments, the Indian National Satellite System was successfully launched by ISRO in 1982. The Indian space program has since remained steadfast in its commitment to utilizing satellites for educational purposes. In September 2004, India launched EDUSAT, the world's first satellite exclusively dedicated to serving the educational sector. EDUSAT is instrumental in meeting the growing demand for an interactive, satellite-based distance education system tailored for India.