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Seljuk Empire

The Seljuk Empire, a formidable entity that once stretched across vast swathes of Anatolia and the Middle East, was a high medieval, culturally Turco-Persian, Sunni Muslim empire. Established and governed by the Qïnïq branch of the Oghuz Turks, it left an indelible mark on the historical and cultural landscape of the region. The empire's dominion, at its peak, encompassed an astonishing 3.9 million square kilometers (1.5 million square miles), extending from Anatolia and the Levant in the west, across to the Hindu Kush in the east. Its reach stretched from Central Asia in the north to the Persian Gulf in the south. While its imperial rule over the Anatolian peninsula eventually waned by 1194, the Seljuk influence persisted in various forms until 1308.

The foundation of this expansive empire was laid in 1037 by Tughril (990–1063) and his brother Chaghri (989–1060). These brothers, recognized as co-rulers, steered the empire through its formative years. Historical accounts also suggest the possibility of a triumvirate leadership, which may have included Musa Yabghu, their uncle.

The Seljuks’ initial migration from their ancestral lands near the Aral Sea saw them push into Khorasan and subsequently the Iranian mainland. It was here that they began to establish themselves as a predominantly Persianate society. Their westward movement led them to the conquest of Baghdad, a strategic move that filled a significant power vacuum created by the internal conflicts between the Arab Abbasid Caliphate and the Iranian Buyid Empire.

The expansion of Seljuk influence into eastern Anatolia consequently ignited the Byzantine–Seljuk wars. The pivotal Battle of Manzikert in 1071 proved to be a watershed moment, tilting the conflict decisively in favor of the Seljuks. This victory severely weakened the Byzantine Empire, undermining its authority in Anatolia and paving the way for the gradual Turkification of the region.

The Seljuk Empire was instrumental in unifying the fragmented political landscape of the non-Arab eastern regions of the Muslim world. It played a crucial role in both the First and Second Crusades, and during its reign, witnessed the flourishing of numerous artistic movements. However, a devastating defeat at the Battle of Qatwan in 1141 against the Qara-Khitai (Western Liao) resulted in the loss of its eastern vassal state, the Kara-Khanids, and vast eastern territories. This setback significantly weakened the empire, fostering internal discord and accelerating its eventual decline. The Seljuks were ultimately superseded in the east by the Khwarazmian Empire in 1194, and in the west by the Zengids and Ayyubids. The last Seljuk dominion, the Sultanate of Rum, finally fell in 1308.

Founder of the Dynasty

The genesis of the Seljuk dynasty traces back to Seljuk, a charismatic warlord belonging to the Qiniq tribe of the Oghuz Turks. Leading his clan, Seljuk migrated to the banks of the Syr Darya river, settling near the city of Jend. It was here, in 985, that his clan embraced Islam. At this time, Khwarezm was under the nominal authority of the Samanid Empire, administered by the Ma'munids. By 999, the Samanids had been overthrown by the Kara-Khanid Khanate in Transoxiana, while the Ghaznavids had seized control of the territories south of the Amu Darya. The Seljuks initially supported the last Samanid emir against the Kara-Khanids before establishing their own independent base of operations.

Expansion of the Empire

Tughril and Chaghri

Tughrul Beg and his brother Chaghri Beg were the driving forces behind the Seljuk expansion. The Oghuz Turks, also known as Turkmens at the time, were among several Oghuz groups who migrated into Iran between approximately 1020 and 1040. Under the leadership of Musa, Seljuk's son, and his nephews Tughril and Chaghri, they first moved south into Transoxiana, and then into Khorasan. Their initial movements were often at the invitation of local rulers, but soon became entangled in complex alliances and conflicts. Contemporary sources place them in regions such as Dahistan, Farawa, and Nasa, as well as Sarakhs, all currently within Turkmenistan.

In 1034, Tughril and Chaghri suffered a significant defeat at the hands of the Oghuz Yabghu Ali Tegin and his allies, forcing them to flee Transoxiana. Seeking refuge in Khwarazm, a region historically used for grazing by the Oghuz, they were also encouraged by the local Ghaznavid governor, Harun, who hoped to leverage the Seljuks in his bid to seize Khorasan from his overlord. However, when Harun was assassinated by Ghaznavid agents in 1035, the Seljuks were compelled to move once more, this time traversing the Karakum Desert southward. Their journey took them to the strategically important city of Merv, but due to its formidable defenses, they redirected their efforts westward, finding refuge in Nasa. Ultimately, the Seljuks reached the fringes of Khorasan, a province considered the prized possession of the Ghaznavids.

Upon entering Khorasan, the Seljuks, under Tughril's command, wrested control of an empire from the Ghaznavids. Although initially repulsed by Mahmud of Ghazni, Tughril and Chaghri led their people to capture Merv and Nishapur in 1037–1038. Subsequently, they engaged in repeated raids and territorial exchanges with Mahmud's successor, Mas'ud, across Khorasan and Balkh.

The decisive Battle of Dandanaqan in 1040 saw the Seljuks achieve a resounding victory over Masʽud I of Ghazni, compelling him to relinquish most of his western territories. Following this triumph, the Seljuks incorporated Khorasanians into their administration, establishing a Persian bureaucracy to manage their newly acquired polity, with Tughril serving as the nominal sovereign. By 1046, the Abbasid Caliph al-Qa'im formally recognized Seljuk rule over Khorasan by issuing a diploma. In 1048–1049, under the command of Ibrahim Yinal, Tughril's uterine brother, the Seljuks launched their first major incursion into the Byzantine frontier region of Iberia. There, on September 10, 1048, they clashed with a combined Byzantine-Georgian army of 50,000 at the Battle of Kapetrou. The devastation wrought by this encounter was such that the Byzantine magnate Eustathios Boilas later described the area as "foul and unmanageable... inhabited by snakes, scorpions, and wild beasts." The Arab chronicler Ibn al-Athir reported that Ibrahim Yinal returned with 100,000 captives and a vast quantity of loot.

In 1055, Tughril entered Baghdad, acting on a commission from the Abbasid caliph, and successfully expelled the influence of the Buyid dynasty. Iraq remained under Seljuk control until 1135.

Alp Arslan

Alp Arslan, son of Chaghri Beg, significantly expanded the Seljuk domains inherited from Tughril. He incorporated Armenia and Georgia into the empire in 1064 and launched an invasion of the Byzantine Empire in 1068, ultimately annexing almost all of Anatolia. Alp Arslan's decisive victory at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071 effectively neutralized Byzantine resistance to the Turkish incursions into Anatolia, although the Georgians managed to recover from Alp Arslan's invasion by securing the theme of Iberia. The Byzantine withdrawal from Anatolia brought Georgia into more direct contact with the Seljuks. In 1073, Seljuk Amirs from Ganja, Dvin, and Dmanisi invaded Georgia and were defeated by George II of Georgia, who subsequently captured the fortress of Kars. A retaliatory strike by the Seljuk Amir Ahmad resulted in a defeat of the Georgians at Kvelistsikhe.

Alp Arslan granted his Turkoman generals the authority to establish their own principalities in the formerly Byzantine territories of Anatolia, functioning as atabegs loyal to him. Within two years, numerous Turkmen beyliks had established dominance as far as the Aegean Sea. These included the Saltukids in Northeastern Anatolia, the Shah-Armens and the Mengujekids in Eastern Anatolia, the Artuqids in Southeastern Anatolia, the Danishmendis in Central Anatolia, the Rum Seljuks (under Suleyman ibn Qutalmish, who later relocated to Central Anatolia) in Western Anatolia, and the Beylik of Tzachas of Smyrna in İzmir (Smyrna).

Malik Shah I

Under Alp Arslan's successor, Malik Shah I, and his two Persian viziers, Nizām al-Mulk and Tāj al-Mulk, the Seljuk state experienced significant territorial expansion. The empire's borders extended to the pre-Arab invasion frontiers of Iran, reaching as far east as China and as far west as the Byzantines. Malik Shah's brother, Tutush, defended Seljuk interests in Syria during the battle of Ain Salm against Suleiman ibn Qutalmish, who had begun to establish an independent state in Anatolia. Despite various attempts to bring the disparate Turkish warlords in Anatolia under control, they largely maintained their autonomy. Malikshāh was responsible for relocating the capital from Ray to Isfahan. The implementation of the iqta military system and the establishment of the Nizāmīyyah University in Baghdad were key achievements of Nizām al-Mulk, and Malikshāh's reign is often regarded as the golden age of the "Great Seljuk." In 1087, the Abbasid caliph bestowed upon him the title "The Sultan of the East and West."

Internally, Malik Shah's reign was marked by the increasing power and influence of Nizām al-Mulk. Some contemporary chroniclers referred to this period as "al-dawla al-Nizamiyya," signifying the "Nizam's state," while modern scholars have described him as the "real ruler of the Seljuq empire." The 14th-century biographer Subki claimed that Nizām al-Mulk's vizierate was "not just a vizierate, it was above the sultanate." During this era, the Assassins led by Hassan-i Sabāh began to emerge as a significant force. They were responsible for the assassination of many prominent figures within Malik Shah's administration, including, according to numerous sources, Nizām al-Mulk himself.

Ahmad Sanjar

Ahmad Sanjar, son of Malik Shah I, participated in the succession wars against his three brothers and a nephew, namely Mahmud I, Berkyaruq, Malik Shah II, and Muhammad I Tapar. In 1096, his brother Muhammad I assigned him the governorship of Khorasan. Over the subsequent years, Ahmad Sanjar rose to become the ruler of most of Iran (Persia), and by 1118, he was the sole ruler of the Great Seljuk Empire. However, his authority was acknowledged with a subordinate Sultan, Mahmud II, in Iraq.

In 1141, Ahmad marched to confront the threat posed by the Kara Khitans, engaging them near Samarkand at the Battle of Qatwan. This marked his first significant defeat, resulting in the loss of all Seljuk territories east of the Syr Darya.

Sanjar's rule, and indeed the dominance of the Seljuks, ultimately collapsed following another unexpected defeat in 1153, this time at the hands of their own tribe. Sanjar was captured during the battle and held captive until 1156. This event plunged the Empire into chaos, a situation that was readily exploited by the victorious Turkmens, whose hordes subsequently overran Khorasan unopposed, causing immense damage to the province and greatly diminishing Sanjar's prestige. Sanjar eventually escaped captivity in the autumn of 1156 but died shortly thereafter in Merv in 1157. Following his death, various Turkic rulers, Turkmen tribal forces, and other secondary powers vied for control of Khorasan. In 1181, Sultan Shah, a claimant to the Khwarezmian throne, managed to secure control of Khorasan, holding it until 1192 when he was defeated near Merv by the Ghurids, who subsequently annexed his territories. The Ghurids then consolidated their control over all of Khorasan, extending their reach as far as Besṭām in the ancient region of Qūmes, following the death of Sultan Shah's successor, Tekish, in 1200. Khorasan was finally absorbed by the Khwarazmians after the Ghurid defeat at the Battle of Andkhud in 1204.

The Tomb of Ahmed Sanjar was tragically destroyed by the Mongols under Tolui, who sacked the city of Merv in 1221. Contemporary sources claim that 700,000 people were killed during their devastating invasion of Khwarazm; however, modern scholarship suggests these figures may be exaggerated.

Division of the Empire

Upon the death of Malikshāh I in 1092, the empire fractured as his brother and four sons engaged in a struggle for power and the division of territories. Concurrently, Kilij Arslan I, son of Suleiman ibn Qutalmish, escaped Malikshāh's imprisonment and asserted his claim to authority in his father's former lands, forming the Sultanate of Rum. In Persia, Malikshāh's four-year-old son, Mahmud I, was proclaimed sultan, but his reign was contested by his three brothers: Berkyaruq in Iraq, Muhammad I in Baghdad, and Ahmad Sanjar in Khorasan. Furthermore, Malikshāh's brother, Tutush I, also laid claim to the throne but was killed in battle against Berkyaruq in February 1096. Following Tutush's death, his sons, Radwan and Duqaq, inherited Aleppo and Damascus respectively, and their own disputes further fragmented Syria among antagonistic emirs.

In 1118, Ahmad Sanjar, the third son, assumed control of the empire. His nephew, the son of Muhammad I, did not recognize his claim, leading Mahmud II to proclaim himself Sultan and establish a capital in Baghdad. This situation persisted until 1131, when he was formally deposed by Ahmad Sanjar.

In other regions nominally under Seljuk control, the Artuqids held sway in northeastern Syria and northern Mesopotamia, controlling Jerusalem until 1098. The Dānišmand dynasty established a state in eastern Anatolia and northern Syria, frequently clashing with the Sultanate of Rum. Meanwhile, Kerbogha exercised independent authority as the atabeg of Mosul.

First Crusade (1095–1099)

During the First Crusade, the fragmented Seljuk states were largely preoccupied with consolidating their own territories and asserting dominance over their neighbors, rather than presenting a united front against the crusaders. The Seljuks easily repelled the People's Crusade in 1096. However, they were unable to halt the advance of the subsequent Princes' Crusade (First Crusade), which captured key cities such as Nicaea (İznik), Iconium (Konya), Caesarea Mazaca (Kayseri), and Antioch (Antakya) on its path to Jerusalem (Al-Quds). In 1099, the crusaders successfully captured the Holy Land and established the first Crusader states. The Seljuks had already lost Jerusalem to the Fatimids, who had recaptured it in 1098, just prior to its fall to the crusaders.

After plundering the County of Edessa, the Seljuk commander Ilghazi negotiated a peace agreement with the Crusaders. In 1121, he marched north towards Georgia, leading an army estimated to be between 250,000 and 350,000 strong, including contingents led by his son-in-law Sadaqah and Sultan Malik of Ganja. They invaded the Kingdom of Georgia. David IV of Georgia rallied an army of 40,000 Georgian warriors, including 5,000 monaspa guards, 15,000 Kipchaks, 300 Alans, and 100 French Crusaders to confront Ilghazi's formidable force. At the Battle of Didgori on August 12, 1121, the Seljuks were routed, and pursued relentlessly by Georgian cavalry for several days. This victory significantly aided the Crusader states, which had been under pressure from Ilghazi's armies, and also benefited the Kingdom of Jerusalem under King Baldwin II by weakening a major adversary.

Second Crusade (1147–1149)

During this period, conflicts with the Crusader states were intermittent. Following the First Crusade, increasingly independent atabegs frequently formed alliances with the Crusader states against rival atabegs in their ongoing struggles for territorial control. At Mosul, Zengi succeeded Kerbogha as atabeg and initiated the consolidation of the Syrian atabegs. In 1144, Zengi captured Edessa, as the County of Edessa had allied itself with the Artuqids against him. This event served as the catalyst for the launch of the Second Crusade. Nur ad-Din, one of Zengi's sons who succeeded him as atabeg of Aleppo, forged an alliance within the region to counter the Second Crusade, which arrived in 1147.

Decline of the Seljuk Empire

Ahmad Sanjar struggled to contain numerous revolts, including those by the Kara-Khanids in Transoxiana, the Ghurids in Afghanistan, and the Qarluks in present-day Kyrgyzstan, in addition to nomadic invasions by the Qara-Khitais from the east. The advancing Qara-Khitais first defeated the Eastern Kara-Khanids and subsequently crushed the Western Kara-Khanids, who were vassals of the Seljuks, at Khujand. The Kara-Khanids sought assistance from their Seljuk overlords, prompting Sanjar to personally lead an army against the Qara-Khitai. However, Sanjar's army suffered a decisive defeat by the forces of Yelu Dashi at the Battle of Qatwan on September 9, 1141. While Sanjar managed to escape, many of his close relatives, including his wife, were captured in the aftermath of the battle. As a consequence of Sanjar's failure to effectively counter the eastern threat, the Seljuk Empire lost all its eastern provinces up to the river Syr Darya, and the vassalage of the Western Kara-Khanids was usurped by the Qara-Khitai, who are known in Chinese historiography as the Western Liao.

Conquest by Khwarazm and the Ayyubids

In 1153, the Oghuz Turks rebelled and captured Sanjar. He managed to escape after three years but died a year later. The Atabegs, such as the Zengids and Artuqids, were only nominally subordinate to the Seljuk Sultan and generally governed Syria independently. Following Sanjar's death in 1157, the empire fragmented further, rendering the Atabegs effectively independent.

The breakaway states and dynasties that emerged included:

Following the Second Crusade, Nur ad-Din's general, Shirkuh, who had established himself in Egypt on Fatimid territory, was succeeded by Saladin. Saladin eventually rebelled against Nur ad-Din and, upon Nur ad-Din's death, married his widow. Saladin then captured most of Syria, establishing the Ayyubid dynasty.

The Kingdom of Georgia began to assert itself as a regional power, expanding its borders at the expense of the Great Seljuk Empire. Similarly, the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia experienced a revival under Leo II of Armenia in Anatolia. The Abbasid caliph al-Nasir also commenced efforts to reassert the caliphate's authority and formed an alliance with the Khwarazmshah Takash.

For a brief period, Toghrul III held the title of Sultan of all Seljuk lands with the exception of Anatolia. His reign was characterized by campaigns to conquer cities, including the destruction of the citadel of Ray, though he struggled to maintain long-term control over conquered territories. Ultimately, Toghrul III was defeated by Ala al-Din Tekish, the Shah of the Khwarazmian Empire, leading to the final collapse of the Seljuk Empire in 1194. Only the Sultanate of Rum in Anatolia remained as a successor state.

The Khwarazmian Empire rose to become the dominant power in the region, but its ascendancy was short-lived, succumbing to the Mongol invasion of 1219–1220.

The Sultanate of Rum, the last vestige of Seljuk power in Anatolia, also met its end with the Mongol invasions of Anatolia during the 1260s. It fragmented into smaller emirates known as 'beyliks', one of which, the Ottomans, would eventually rise to prominence and conquer the rest.

Governance

The zenith of Seljuk power was achieved under Malikshāh I, during which period both the Qarakhanids and Ghaznavids were compelled to acknowledge Seljuk overlordship. Seljuk dominion extended over the ancient Sasanian territories in Iran and Iraq, encompassing Anatolia, Syria, and parts of Central Asia and modern Afghanistan. Their governance structure was modeled on the tribal organization prevalent among Turkic and Mongol nomadic cultures, resembling a 'family federation' or 'appanage state'. Within this system, the paramount family leader assigned portions of his domains as autonomous appanages to various family members.

Capital Cities

The Seljuks exercised complete authority over Islamic Central Asia and the Middle East from 1040 to 1157. Throughout much of its history, the empire was divided into western and eastern halves, lacking a singular capital or political center. In the east, the primary seat of Seljuk rule was Marv in present-day Turkmenistan. In the west, various cities served as periodic capitals for the Seljuk rulers, including Rayy, Isfahan, Baghdad, and later, Hamadan. These western territories were collectively known as the Sultanate of Iraq. Following 1118, the Seljuk rulers of Iraq acknowledged the suzerainty of the Seljuk sultan Sanjar, who largely governed from Marv and was known by the esteemed title of al-sultān al-a'zam (the Greatest Sultan). The Seljuk rulers of Iraq were often referred to as the 'Lesser Seljuks'.

Culture and Language

The ideological framework of the Seljuk Empire drew heavily from the preceding Samanid and Ghaznavid kingdoms, which themselves had emerged from the Perso-Islamic imperial system of the Abbasid caliphate. This Perso-Islamic tradition was rooted in pre-Islamic Iranian concepts of kingship, adapted within an Islamic context. The Seljuks adopted very little of their public symbolism from Turkic traditions, with the exception of the tughra. The populace of the Seljuk Empire generally considered this Perso-Islamic tradition to be more significant than steppe customs.

The Seljuks, highly Persianized in both culture and language, played a pivotal role in the development of the Turko-Persian tradition, even facilitating the export of Persian culture to Anatolia. During their rule, Persian was the language of choice for political treatises, particularly those in the mirrors for princes genre, such as the renowned Siyasatnama (Book of Politics), authored by Nizam al-Mulk. These works consciously incorporated Islamic and Iranian traditions, referencing the Prophet Muhammad and his successors, as well as the Sasanian King of Kings Khosrow I.

The Seljuk sultans frequently adopted the Sasanian title of shahanshah (King of Kings) on their coinage and even used the old Buyid title of "Shahanshah of Islam." Lesser princes within the Seljuk family used the title of malik. Similar to the caliphate, the Seljuks relied on a sophisticated Persian bureaucracy. The strategic settlement of Turkic tribes in the northwestern peripheries of the empire, intended to bolster defenses against neighboring states, gradually led to the Turkicization of these areas. The 12th-century poet Nizami Aruzi noted the Seljuk sultans' appreciation for poetry, a sentiment further evidenced by the extensive compilation of Persian verses patronized during their reign. This patronage began with Tughril, who was lauded in Arabic and Persian by poets like Fakhruddin As'ad Gurgani and Bakharzi, despite his apparent inability to comprehend the verses. The last Seljuk sultan, Tughril III, was himself known for his Persian poetry. The Saljuq-nama by [Zahir al-Din Nishapuri], likely dedicated to Tughril III, indicates that the Seljuk family had adopted Persian as their primary language of communication and were educated in the achievements of their ancestors through this medium.

Tughril relied on his vizier to translate texts from Arabic and Persian into Turkic for him. Oghuz songs were performed at Tughril's wedding to the caliph's daughter. Later sultans, such as Mahmud, were proficient in Arabic alongside Persian, yet they continued to converse in Turkic amongst themselves. The most significant testament to the importance of the Turkic language is the comprehensive Turkic–Arabic dictionary, the Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk, compiled in Baghdad for Caliph al-Muqtadi by [Mahmud al-Kashgari]. However, apart from the Diwan, no other surviving works written in the Turkic language from the Seljuk Empire are known. While the Maliknama was compiled from Turkic oral traditions, it was ultimately written in Persian and Arabic.

Steppe traditions influenced Seljuk marital practices, with Tughril marrying his brother Chaghri's widow, a practice generally frowned upon in Islam. Seljuk ceremonies often mirrored Abbasid models, though ancient Iranian ceremonies were also sometimes observed. For instance, in 1091, Baghdad was illuminated with candles by order of Malik-Shah I, a practice reminiscent of the Zoroastrian ritual of sadhak.

Religion

In 985, the Seljuks migrated to the city of Jend and embraced Islam. The arrival of the Seljuk Turks in Persia and their patronage of madrasa construction significantly contributed to the establishment of Sunni Islam as the dominant sect. Until the death of Sultan Sanjar, the Seljuks remained devout Sunnis, championing the re-establishment of Sunni Islam in Iraq and western Persia since the 10th century.

In 1046, Tughril established the madrasa al-Sultaniya in Nishapur, while Chaghri Beg founded a madrasa in Merv. Tughril and Alp Arslan appointed Hanafi qadis and preachers to these institutions. By 1063, twenty-five madrasas, founded by Seljuk princes, were scattered throughout Persia and Khorasan. By the 12th century, Baghdad alone hosted over thirty madrasas.

The Seljuk sultans were prolific builders of religious structures, a practice also followed by their viziers. The Seljuk vizier, Nizam al-Mulk, founded the first madrasa in Baghdad in 1063, known as the Nizamiya. He patronized Shafi'is in the madrasas he established. The vizier Taj al-Mulk and Malik-shah's widow, Terken Khatun, patronized the construction of a madrasa to rival Nizam al-Mulk's Nizamiya.

In 1056, Tughril constructed a Friday mosque along with a new quarter in Baghdad, enclosed by a wall. This new quarter served to segregate the Shia community from the Sunnis, mitigating frequent outbreaks of violence. Through the influence of Tughril's vizier, [al-Kunduri], a Hanafi Sunni, Ash'ari and Ismaili Shi'ites were exiled from Khurasan and publicly cursed in Seljuk mosques during Friday sermons. Al-Kunduri's vizierate persecuted Ash'aris and Sharifis, a policy that ceased with the vizierate of Nizam al-Mulk. It was during al-Kunduri's tenure that the Islamic scholar [Al-Juwayni] was compelled to flee to Mecca and Medina. In 1065, Alp Arslan campaigned against the Kingdom of Georgia, subjugated Tbilisi, and commissioned the construction of a mosque in the city.

In 1092, Malik-Shah commissioned the Jami al-Sultan Mosque in Baghdad. In the capital city of Isfahan, Malik-shah oversaw the construction of a madrasa, a citadel, and a castle near Dizkuh. Following Malik-Shah's death, the ensuing familial civil war diverted attention from religious patronage, slowing the pace of madrasa and mosque construction. Nevertheless, in 1130, the Seljuk sultan Sanjar ordered the construction of the Quthamiyya madrasa in Samarkand.

Control over the Abbasids in Iraq (1055–1135)

The region of Iraq came under the dominion of the Seljuk Empire from 1055 to 1135, following the expulsion of the Shiite Buyid dynasty by the Oghuz Turk Tughril Beg. Upon entering Baghdad in 1055, Tughril Beg became the first Seljuk ruler to adopt the title of Sultan and Protector of the Abbasid Caliphate. From this point forward, the Abbasids functioned primarily as figureheads under Seljuk control. In 1058, the Abbasid caliph bestowed upon Tughril the title of "King of East and West," formally designating him as the temporal protector of Abbasid caliph Qa'im. Iraq remained under the authority of the Great Seljuks during the reign of Muhammad I Tapar (1082–1118 CE). However, from 1119, his son, the 14-year-old Mahmud II (1118–1131), was restricted to ruling Iraq, while Sanjar assumed control over the remainder of the Empire.

To counter the ambitions of Abbasid Caliph al-Mustarshid (1118–1135), who sought to establish global dominance, Mahmud granted the city of Wasit to Imad al-Din Zengi as an iqta in 1124. In 1126, he conferred upon Zengi the Military Governorship of [Basra], along with Baghdad and all of Iraq. In 1127, Imad al-Din Zengi was appointed Governor of Mosul, leading to the formation of the Atabegdom of Mosul. Seljuk control over the Abbasids effectively ended in 1135, following a direct military confrontation between the Abbasids and the Seljuks. After rebuilding the walls of Baghdad and re-establishing a Caliphal presence after centuries, al-Mustarshid engaged the subordinate Seljuk Sultan of Iraq, Mas'ud, in battle. The caliph was defeated and taken prisoner, dying in captivity in 1135, though conflicts with his successors continued. Mas'ud briefly recaptured Baghdad in the Siege of Baghdad (1136), forcing Caliph Al-Rashid Billah to abdicate. However, the subsequent caliph, al-Muqtafi (1136–1160), managed to restore a considerable degree of independence and successfully resisted the Seljuk siege of Baghdad (1157).

Military

General Overview

The Seljuk army in its early stages differed from the renowned Turkic military forces of the classical Abbasid era. Their initial invasions were more akin to large nomadic migrations, accompanied by their families and livestock, rather than meticulously planned military conquests. They were not a professional army in the modern sense; however, warfare was an integral part of life for nearly all adult male Turkmens.

According to the Seljuk vizier, Nizam al-Mulk, by the reign of Malik-Shah I, the sovereign commanded a substantial army. This force comprised Turkmens, mamluks, a standing army, infantry, and the sultan's personal guard. Nizam al-Mulk estimated Malik-Shah's forces at 400,000 men and often opposed cost-cutting measures, proposed by Taj al-Mulk, that aimed to reduce these numbers to 70,000.

Turkmens

Vizier Nizam al-Mulk, a staunch advocate for the Persian orientation of the Seljuk empire, acknowledged the dynasty's considerable debt to the Turkmens. Following the establishment of the Seljuk state, Turkmens continued to be the primary force driving Seljuk expansion into Anatolia. However, after the reign of Malik-Shah I, mentions of Turkmens in the Jibali region, particularly along their traditional axis of Rayy, Hamadhan, and Hulwan, become notably scarce.

The Turkmens proved difficult to manage, prone to undisciplined pillaging. The most significant challenge, however, was their reliance on pasturelands for their livestock. A considerable portion of the territories constituting the Seljuk state were ecologically unsuitable for sustaining a nomadic army. The limitations of the Turkmens were aptly described by the Arab scholar [Sibt ibn al-Jawzi]:

The sultan (Tughril I) ordered his soldiers to prepare themselves and to send for their tents, children, and families to Iraq and to head to Syria with him. They responded, "This land is ruined, there is neither food nor fodder here, and we have no funds left. We cannot stay indefinitely on the backs of horses. What if our families, horses, and beasts arrive, but our absence becomes prolonged? We must visit our families, so we ask for permission to return to them and go back to our assigned places."

Long military campaigns had to be curtailed due to the Turkmens' insistence on returning home, and conquests were scheduled to accommodate their demands. The immediate needs of the Turkmens rendered longer-term military planning unachievable.

Iqta' Army

This system, previously employed by ancient Islamic states, was formally established for military purposes during the Great Seljuk period under Sultan Malik-Shah I, thereby assuming a significant role in the military sphere. The army organized under this system by the Great Seljuks was known as the Iqta' Army. The Ikta system, reorganized by Vizier Nizam al-Mulk, served the dual purpose of training soldiers and enhancing the prosperity of the lands assigned. The Iqta' System underwent centralization efforts during the Sanjar era and bore resemblance to the Timar Army of the Ottoman Empire.

Palace Ghilmans or Special Army

The Palace Ghilmans, or Special Army, comprised troops paid by the state and tasked with the protection of the imperial palace and the sultan during the Seljuk period. These troops also served as the Seljuk sultan's personal guard during battles and campaigns. For instance, at the Battle of Manzikert, 4,000 ghilman formed the central army of the Seljuk Sultan Alp Arslan. Furthermore, these troops were of Sipahi origin.

Mamluks

An alternative to the nomadic Turkmen troops was the utilization of mamluks. Although also of Turkic and often nomadic origin, the mamluks were distinct in that they did not lead nomadic lives, thus eliminating dependence on pasturelands. Previously, mamluks had constituted the armies of the later Abbasid, Samanid, and Ghaznavid dynasties; indeed, the Ghaznavid dynasty itself originated from mamluks.

While the process of mamluk recruitment is well-documented from other periods of Islamic history, direct information pertaining to the Seljuks is scarce. The primary source for mamluk recruitment was likely through forays into the steppe. An alternative method involved purchasing them from slave traders and various dealers, as evidenced by a slave dispute between a merchant and Muhammad I Tapar.

Military of Successor States

Numerous depictions of military figures from the period immediately following the Seljuk Empire (which concluded in 1194) are known, coinciding with a significant surge in illustrated manuscripts around 1200. Seljuk military equipment styles persisted into the 13th century within the Turkic successor states (often grouped under the broader term "Seljuk period"), such as the Seljuk Rums, the Zengids, the Artuqids, and the Khwarizmians, as documented in their respective manuscripts.

Architecture

Mosques and madrasas were constructed and embellished during the period of Seljuk rule. Congregational mosques were either repaired, rebuilt, or erected anew. The Seljuk sultans also commissioned numerous madrasas to foster the dissemination of orthodox Islamic sciences. These architectural developments align with the Seljuk dynasty's emphasis on Islam and the promotion of Muslim orthodoxy, integrating Sufism and Sunnism.

Generally, architecture attributed to the Seljuk period is characterized by elaborate ornamentation, mirroring the artistic output of the era. Decoration was primarily executed through intricate brickwork and the use of vibrantly colored glazed tiles. The most significant architectural innovations of this period were observed in the design of mosques, most notably in the renovations of the Friday mosque of Isfahan. One such innovation was the introduction of the four-iwan plan, a feature present in earlier buildings but which became a defining characteristic of mosques, madrasas, and caravanserais in Iran and Central Asia under the Seljuks, subsequently influencing architectural styles in Syria, Mesopotamia, and Anatolia. Another major development was the creation of monumental domes situated in front of the mihrab (or the maqsura), a feature that became characteristic of later mosques in the region and beyond.

The [muqarnas], a form of three-dimensional geometric decoration, also flourished during the Seljuk period. Some scholars suggest that the earliest known examples of muqarnas were constructed during the era of Seljuk dominance, although it remains possible that they were developed concurrently in North Africa. The intricate layering of embellished cells with varied profiles in muqarnas creates a dome with a seemingly ethereal interior, with the play of light across its surface enhancing this visual effect. Art historian Oleg Grabar posits that the effect of muqarnas domes embodies Qur'anic symbolism related to water. Examples of muqarnas are also found within the niches of mosques built during the Seljuk empire.

Arts

Various art forms gained prominence during the Seljuk period, as evidenced by the substantial number of surviving artifacts. The majority of Seljuk art is believed to have originated from regions now constituting modern-day Iran. However, the Seljuk sultans also encouraged artists to settle in Anatolia as part of their efforts to repopulate and reconstruct various cities. Many works of Seljuk art continued to be produced even after the empire's decline in the late 12th century. Consequently, the timeline associated with the production of Seljuk art does not perfectly align with the political events of the empire and its eventual fall. Nevertheless, relatively few artworks can be precisely dated and attributed to a Great Seljuk context. A significant portion of material considered Seljuk in museums worldwide actually belongs to the period 1150–1250, following the decline of the Great Seljuk Empire, a period that witnessed a notable surge in artistic production, seemingly largely independent of court patronage.

Ceramics

Among the various ceramic forms, the manufacture of polychrome ceramic tiles, frequently employed for architectural decoration, was popularized during the Seljuk dynasty. The Seljuks pioneered the use of the Mina'i technique, a method involving painted and enameled overglaze for ceramics. The glazes on Seljuk ceramics often ranged from a brilliant turquoise to a very dark blue. The art of Seljuk mosaic tile decoration continued to adorn the interiors of many Anatolian mosques in the post-Seljuk era. The Seljuks also produced ceramic house models, and other ceramic forms from the Seljuk period included pottery figurines, some of which were toys for children.

Art of the Book

Both secular and religious manuscripts were produced during the Seljuk period. While surviving examples are limited due to their susceptibility to damage over time, those that have endured provide valuable insights into the Seljuks' engagement with the art of the book. Calligraphers and illuminators were primarily responsible for the creation of these manuscripts, although some calligraphers excelled in both writing and illustration. By the late 10th century, illuminators and calligraphers began to incorporate diverse colors, styles, and writing techniques into book arts.

The Qur'ans produced during the Seljuk period showcase advancements in calligraphy and shifts in the organization of the sacred text. Notably, calligraphers of this era frequently combined multiple scripts on a single page of the Qur'an, such as Kufic and the New Style. Alongside these textual developments, the dawn of the Seljuk empire coincided with a resurgence in the popularity of paper as a substitute for parchment within the Islamic world. The use of durable paper facilitated the production of compact, single-volume Qur'ans, whereas parchment codices often comprised multiple volumes. Despite this trend, parchment remained a favored medium for some Qur'ans, and multi-volume works continued to be produced. Illuminated borders continued to distinguish Qur'ans from the Seljuk period, maintaining relative consistency in their structural composition.

One example of a manuscript created during Seljuk rule is a thirty-volume (juz) Qur'an produced around 1050, attributed to a single calligrapher and illuminator. As paper had only recently been introduced to the Islamic world, this work represents an early Islamic paper manuscript. Bound in brown leather dyed pink and adorned with gold, it features an intricate frontispiece. These elements underscore the meticulous care invested in its production, and indications of frequent use attest to its appreciation. Primarily written in the vertical "New-Style" Arabic script, a sharp, vertical script, the dominant use of New Style in this folio, also known as "new Abbasid Script," signifies the transition from the geometric Kufic script to a more legible calligraphic style, a shift that occurred in the 10th century. Scattered remnants of Kufic, primarily used for volume and page numbering, also appear within the text. The vertical orientation of the paper in this manuscript reflects the historical shift away from the horizontal use of paper in many Qur'ans, another development originating in the 10th century.

Another example of a religious manuscript produced closer to the end of the Seljuk period is the Qarmathian Qur'an (with dispersed folios), illuminated with a gold border and fine, spiraled illustrations featuring floral motifs. Despite the rich illumination, the four lines of Qur'anic text on the folio remain exceptionally legible. Created between 1170–1200, this folio exemplifies the evolution of the New Style, incorporating both vocalized cursive and diacritical dots in its later iteration. It was only during the 13th century that the New Style would be superseded by curvier proportional scripts for regular use.

A Seljuk manuscript focusing on astrological figures, the Book of Fixed Stars (Kitāb suwar al-kawākib al-ṯābita), by ‛Abd al-Rahman ibn ‛Umar al-Ṣūfī, dated 1125 CE, was produced in Baghdad (under Seljuk control from 1055 to 1135).

A final example of a Seljuk Qur'an studied in depth by art historian [Richard Ettinghausen] was written in 1164 by Mahmud Ibn Al-Husayn and contains the entire Qur'an. Unlike the two previously discussed Seljuk Qur'ans, this manuscript predominantly features Naskh script, another early Arabic script that replaced Kufic. However, some Kufic calligraphy is incorporated into the chapter headings, indicating a trend where Kufic became increasingly decorative, often appearing in headings rather than the main body of the text. The manuscript is substantial, with seventeen lines of text across two hundred and fifteen sheets of paper. While not entirely illuminated, both the beginning and end of the manuscript boast elaborate illustrations in hues of blue, gold, and white. Ettinghausen describes the resulting visual effect as "brilliant." The inscriptions feature intricate rosettes, vines, medallions, and arabesques, some serving purely decorative purposes and others marking the end of specific lines of Qur'anic text.

Manuscript production during the Seljuk period was not confined to religious texts. Scientific, literary, and historical works were also created. One example of a secular manuscript is the Nusrat al-fatrah, a historiographical and literary account of the Seljuk period written in 1200 by Imād al-Dīn. Scientific manuscripts from the Seljuk empire often dealt with subjects such as geography, physics, mechanics, mathematics, and astronomy. The former Seljuk city of Isfahan not only housed twelve libraries with a total of twelve thousand volumes but also contained an observatory where scholars could meticulously record their astrological findings. Secular manuscripts from the Seljuk empire frequently featured illuminations depicting celestial alignments and the zodiac, two common thematic elements.

Whether secular or religious, the illuminated manuscripts produced under the Seljuks exerted considerable influence, inspiring other artistic mediums, including metalwork objects crafted from brass or bronze. For instance, the large Qarmathian Qur'an influenced some of the inscriptions found on Seljuk ceramic wares. Even mirrors, candlesticks, coins, and jugs manufactured in Anatolia during the Seljuk period often bore occult astrological imagery derived from manuscripts. Occult knowledge persisted in manuscripts produced after the decline of Seljuk political power in the late 12th century, as the Seljuk sultanate's influence on book arts continued in Anatolia.

The first known illustrated manuscript of the Kitâb al-Diryâq, dated 1198, near the end of the Seljuk dynasty, is generally attributed to the [Jazira] region (northern [Syria] or Northern [Iraq]). Historian Andrew Peacock highlights the Seljuks of Anatolia's interest in occult themes and their manifestation in book arts, suggesting this challenges the prevailing view of the Seljuks as solely "pious defenders of Islam." Some of the occult sciences that particularly interested the Seljuks included geomancy, astrology, and alchemy. A relevant occult manuscript from a later period of Seljuk influence, dating to the 13th century, is the Dustur al-Munajjimin, known as the "Rules of Astrologers," and another is the Daqa'iq al-Haqa'iq, or the "Fine Points of Eternal Truths," dating to the [Sultanate of Rum] in 1272. The latter text reveals an interest in magic and spells, with a specific focus on invoking spiritual beings, such as angels, through ritualistic practices. The text was authored by an individual writing under the pseudonym "Nasiri." Interestingly, Nasiri's Daqa'iq al-Haqa'iq challenges established Islamic interpretations of God while promoting piety and incorporating both Sufi terminology and themes. For example, while including a Sufi poem, the occult text discusses supernatural entities and questions the conventionally accepted number of names for God.

Illustrated Manuscripts

The western regions of the Seljuk realm, including Syria, the Jazira, and Iraq, witnessed an "explosion of figural art" from the 12th to 13th centuries, particularly in the domains of decorative art and illustrated manuscripts. This artistic flourishing occurred despite religious proscriptions against the depiction of living creatures, based on the principle that "it implies a likeness to the creative activity of God." The origins of this new pictorial tradition remain uncertain, but Arabic illustrated manuscripts such as the [Maqamat al-Hariri] shared numerous characteristics with Christian Syriac illustrated manuscripts, such as the [Syriac Gospels]. This synthesis suggests a common pictorial tradition that emerged around 1180 CE in the region, heavily influenced by Byzantine art.

Metalwork

Beginning around the mid-12th century, there was a marked increase in the production of artistic metalwork objects in the eastern Islamic world, encompassing roughly Iran and Central Asia. More of these objects have survived from the period after the 1140s than from preceding eras. The principal centers of production were initially concentrated in the Khorasan region, including Nishapur, Herat, and Ghazna. Scholarly debate exists regarding the patronage of these objects, with some suggesting that the expansion of production can be attributed to the growth of a bourgeoisie in Khorasan with the financial means to afford such high-quality craftsmanship. This is partly supported by inscriptions naming merchant owners, although most surviving objects are nevertheless attributed through their inscriptions to sultans, royal family members, or state officials. In the early 13th century, this artistic expansion in metalwork also occurred further west, in the Levant and Mesopotamia, under the successors of the Great Seljuks (the Zengids, Artuqids, and Anatolian Seljuks), partly fueled by the migration of metalworkers from Iran.

Crafted from bronze or brass, objects could also be inlaid with copper and silver. This latter technique, which had fallen out of favor in previous centuries, experienced a revival that likely originated in Khorasan during this period. The forms produced included traditional Khorasani types, such as fluted ewers and hooded incense burners, as well as new shapes like penboxes with rounded ends and candlesticks with drum-like bodies. Many metal vessels also featured zoomorphic forms. The most sophisticated works were created through raising and sinking techniques, with decoration executed in repoussé. To achieve certain shapes, multiple metal sheets were meticulously soldered together, with seams concealed through various methods, such as camouflage beneath decorative friezes. The diverse range of ornamental motifs included arabesques, geometric designs, real and mythological animals, and even scenes depicting human figures such as musicians and horsemen. Arabic inscriptions are found on nearly all metalwork art objects. An innovation of this period, almost exclusive to metalwork, is the rendering of Arabic script into figurative forms. The earliest known example of this is observed on the so-called Bobrinsky Bucket.

Textiles and Clothing

The general style of clothing attributed to the Seljuks is characterized by the aqbiya tatariyya, or long robe, and decorated caftans with a "Turkish" cut, featuring a diagonal closure from right to left. Patterned textiles were utilized, along with tiraz bands on the upper sleeves. Attire included tall boots and various types of sharbush hats, often with fur lining. These styles persisted into the 13th century in the smaller Turkic successor states, such as the Zengids or [Artuqids], where a greater number of illustrations are available, particularly in manuscripts.

In contrast, the affluent sedentary Persian population appears to have adopted different robe styles, with a front opening that closed diagonally from left to right, known as the aqbiya tatariyya or "Tatar style," though it was also characteristic of Persian caftans from the later decades of the Sasanian dynasty. The fabrics reflect what could be termed a "Sasanian renaissance," with styles reminiscent of the Sasanian or Sogdian periods. Seljuk fabrics are often distinguished by their representation of nature, minimal ornamental details, and the combination of colorful linens, creating an interchangeable color effect. Many realistic natural elements characterize the fabric compositions, such as animals and plants, forming patterns composed of arabesque elements.

In numerous manuscripts from the period, meticulous attention is paid to differentiating the attire of figures of power and authority in Seljuk style from those of the ubiquitous figures depicted in Arab or local styles, who are portrayed with long robes, turbans, and bare or sandaled feet. According to Snelders:

"In a number of these manuscripts, a clear distinction is made between royal and non-royal figures, both in terms of physical appearance and dress. While princes and governors are commonly depicted with similar 'Asiatic' or 'Oriental' facial features and dressed in Turkish military garments like fur-trimmed caps ([sharbush]) and short, close-fitting tunics, most other figures are portrayed with 'Arab' or 'Semitic' facial features and clad in long robes and turbans. Apparently in keeping with the contemporary political and social makeup of the region in which these manuscripts were produced, a visual distinction was drawn along ethnic and social lines, separating the non-Arab Turkish ruling elite from the indigenous Arab bourgeoisie."

Legacy

The Seljuk dynasty brought about a revival, renewed energy, and reunification to Islamic civilization, which had previously been dominated by Arabs and Persians. The Seljuks established universities and were also significant patrons of art and literature. Their reign is notably associated with Persian astronomers such as Omar Khayyam and the Persian philosopher al-Ghazali. Under Seljuk patronage, New Persian emerged as the language for historical documentation, while the center of Arabic language culture shifted from Baghdad to Cairo.

Sultans

The Seljuk Empire was ruled by a succession of sultans, whose reigns and lineages are detailed in the following family tree and lists.

See also