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British Army

Right. Let's get this over with. You want to know about the British Army. Fine. Don't expect me to be enthusiastic. I'm not here to hold your hand through military history. Just the facts, delivered with the usual lack of ceremony.

Land warfare force of the United Kingdom

British Army

Badge of the British Army. [1]

This symbol, the badge, is more than just a pretty picture. It’s a distillation of centuries, a silent testament to the institution it represents. It’s the kind of thing you’d see etched into steel, or perhaps subtly embroidered onto something you wouldn’t dare touch.

Logo since 2018 [2]

This is the modern iteration, the attempt to stay relevant. Like a fresh coat of paint on a crumbling edifice. Foundational, yes, but also a constant reminder of what came before.

Founded 1 April 1707; 318 years ago [a] [4] [5]

The date itself is a footnote, really. The why is more interesting. It’s the formalization, the knitting together of disparate threads into a single, albeit often frayed, tapestry. Three hundred and eighteen years. Long enough to accumulate scars, long enough to forget the original purpose.

Country United Kingdom

The domain. The canvas upon which this force has painted its history, often in shades of red and grey.

Type Army

A land-based entity. Grounded. Capable of holding territory, of digging in. Not the ephemeral dance of air or sea, but the brute force of boots on the ground.

Role Land warfare

Its designated function. The reason for its existence. To engage in conflict where the earth itself becomes a battlefield.

Size

  • 73,847 regular forces personnel (January 2025): These are the professionals. The ones who live and breathe the military. The core.
  • 4,127 Gurkhas (January 2025): A distinct and formidable element. Their inclusion speaks volumes about the Army's reach and its appreciation for specialized martial prowess.
  • 25,742 volunteer reserve personnel (January 2025): The backup. The ones who balance civilian life with military duty. A necessary, if sometimes reluctant, component.
  • 4,697 other personnel (January 2025) [7]: A catch-all. The support staff, the civilian contractors, the necessary machinery that keeps the gears turning.

Part of British Armed Forces

This is the larger entity, the family of military might. The Army is a limb, vital but not the whole body.

General Staff Offices Whitehall, London

The nerve center. Where decisions are made, often in sterile rooms, far from the mud and blood. The administrative heart.

March List of marches of the British Army

A cultural artifact. A nod to tradition, a rhythmic march that echoes through history. Some are stirring, others just... there.

Equipment List of equipment of the British Army

The tools of the trade. From the blunt force of a tank to the precision of a rifle, each piece tells a story of innovation and necessity.

Website www .army .mod .uk

The official pronouncements. The curated image. What they want you to see.

Commanders

Insignia

Symbols. They mean something to those who fight under them. To others, just fabric.

Military unit

  • •
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This is the basic classification. A unit. A collection of individuals bound by a common purpose, however grim.

British Army of the British Armed Forces

Reiteration of its place within the larger structure. It’s a part of a whole, a cog in a much larger machine.

Components

The breakdown. The tangible parts that make up the whole. Each with its own history, its own character.

Administration

The bureaucratic engine. Where the paperwork gets done, the logistics are managed. Essential, if unglamorous.

Overseas

These are the global outposts. The reminders that the Army's reach extends beyond the shores of the United Kingdom. Each location carrying its own strategic weight, its own history of deployment.

Personnel

The human element. The ranks, the symbols that denote authority and experience. Each insignia a story of service, of command, of obedience.

Equipment

A catalog of the tools used. The hardware that enables the Army to perform its function.

History

The narrative. The long, often bloody, thread that connects the past to the present. A chronicle of campaigns, of transformations, of endless cycles of conflict and peace.

United Kingdom portal • v • t • e

The navigational aids. The links to a broader context.

The British Army is the principal land warfare force of the United Kingdom. As of 1 January 2025, [update] the British Army comprises 73,847 regular full-time personnel, 4,127 Gurkhas, 25,742 volunteer reserve personnel and 4,697 "other personnel", for a total of 108,413. [7]

This is the essence of it. The numbers, the categories of personnel. It’s a significant force, a blend of the professional and the citizen soldier, all serving under a singular banner.

The British Army traces back to 1707 and the formation of the united Kingdom of Great Britain, which joined the Kingdoms of England and Scotland into a single state and, with that, united the English Army and the Scots Army as the British Army. [9] [10] The English Bill of Rights 1689 and Scottish Claim of Right Act 1689 require parliamentary consent for the Crown to maintain a peacetime standing army. [11] Members of the British Army swear allegiance to the monarch as their commander-in-chief. [12] The army is administered by the Ministry of Defence and commanded by the Chief of the General Staff. [13]

This is where it begins. The union, the merging of two distinct military identities into one. The legal framework, the checks and balances that were put in place, or perhaps, the concessions made. Allegiance to the Crown, a constant thread. And the administrative layers, the bureaucracy that dictates its operations.

At its inception, being composed primarily of cavalry and infantry, the British Army was one of two Regular Forces (there were also separate Reserve Forces ) within the British military (those parts of the British Armed Forces tasked with land warfare, as opposed to the naval forces), [14] with the other having been the Ordnance Military Corps (made up of the Royal Artillery, Royal Engineers, and the Royal Sappers and Miners) of the Board of Ordnance, which along with the originally civilian Commissariat Department, stores and supply departments, as well as barracks and other departments, were absorbed into the British Army when the Board of Ordnance was abolished in 1855. Various other civilian departments of the board were absorbed into the War Office. [15] [16] [17]

The early structure. The division of labor. The eventual consolidation of power and resources. It’s a story of absorption, of bringing disparate elements under one command. The Ordnance Military Corps, a precursor to specialized branches, eventually becoming integral.

The British Army has seen action in major wars between the world's great powers, including the Seven Years' War, the Napoleonic Wars, the Crimean War and the First and Second World Wars. Britain's victories in most of these decisive wars allowed it to influence world events and establish itself as one of the world's leading military and economic powers. [18] [19] Since the end of the Cold War, the British Army has been deployed to a number of conflict zones, often as part of an expeditionary force, a coalition force or part of a United Nations peacekeeping operation. [20]

This is the resume. The list of major conflicts. The impact on global affairs. And the shift in the post-Cold War era, from direct confrontation to a more nuanced, often multilateral, approach. Peacekeeping, expeditionary operations – the Army adapting, as it always must.

History

Formation

Until the Wars of the Three Kingdoms (1639–1653), neither England nor Scotland had a standing army with professional officers and career corporals and sergeants. England relied on militia organised by local officials or private forces mobilised by the nobility, or on hired mercenaries from Europe. [21] From the later Middle Ages until the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, when a foreign expeditionary force was needed, such as the one that King Henry V took to France and that fought at the Battle of Agincourt (1415), the army, a professional one, was raised for the duration of the expedition. [22]

Before the modern army, there was a patchwork. Local levies, noble retinues, hired hands. Professionalism was a temporary affair, assembled for specific campaigns. It lacked the permanence, the institutional memory, of a standing force.

Lord Protector Oliver Cromwell (left) Lord General Thomas Fairfax, the first commander of the New Model Army (right)

During the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, the members of the English Long Parliament realised that the use of county militia organised into regional associations (such as the Eastern Association), often commanded by local members of Parliament (both from the House of Commons and the House of Lords), while more than able to hold their own in the regions which Parliamentarians ('Roundheads") controlled, were unlikely to win the war. So Parliament initiated two actions. The Self-denying Ordinance forbade members of Parliament (with the notable exception of Oliver Cromwell, then a member of parliament and future Lord Protector) from serving as officers in the Parliamentary armies. This created a distinction between the civilians in Parliament, who tended to be Presbyterian and conciliatory to the Royalists ("Cavaliers") in nature, and a corps of professional officers, who tended to be Independent (Congregational) in theology. The second action was legislation for the creation of a Parliamentary-funded army, commanded by Lord General Thomas Fairfax, which became known as the New Model Army (originally phrased "new-modelled Army"). [23]

The New Model Army. A pivotal moment. Parliament taking direct control, professionalizing the officer corps, creating a force that could actually win. It was a radical departure, a machine built for war that would shape the future of the British military. Cromwell's shadow looms large here, as it often does in matters of English military history.

While this proved to be a war-winning formula, the New Model Army, being organised and politically active, went on to dominate the politics of the Interregnum and by 1660 was widely disliked. The New Model Army was paid off and disbanded at the later Restoration of the monarchy in 1660 with the accession of King Charles II. For many decades the alleged excesses of the New Model Army under the Protectorate / Commonwealth under Oliver Cromwell were used as propaganda (and still feature in Irish folklore) [24] and the Whig Party element recoiled from allowing a standing army to continue with the agreed-upon rights and privileges under the return of a king. [25] The militia acts of 1661 and 1662 prevented local authorities from calling up militia and oppressing their own local opponents. Calling up the militia was possible only if the king and local elites agreed to do so. [26]

The army's success was also its downfall. Its political power, its very existence, became a threat. The Restoration brought back the monarchy, and with it, a deep suspicion of large, professional armies. The New Model Army became a cautionary tale, a bogeyman used to justify a more limited military presence. The militia acts, a subtle shift of power back to local control, a preference for a less centralized military might.

King Charles II and his "Cavalier" / Royalist supporters favoured a new army under royal control, and immediately after the Restoration of 1660 to 1661 began working on its establishment. [27] The first English Army regiments, including elements of the disbanded New Model Army, were formed between November 1660 and January 1661 [28] and became a standing military force for England (financed by Parliament). [29] [30] The Royal Scots and Irish Armies were financed by the parliaments of Scotland and Ireland. [31] Parliamentary control was established by the Bill of Rights 1689 and Claim of Right Act 1689, although the monarch continued to influence aspects of army administration until at least the end of the 19th century. [32]

The pendulum swung back. A new army, loyal to the Crown, but with parliamentary oversight. The seeds of the modern British Army were sown here, in the ashes of the New Model Army. Separate establishments for England, Scotland, and Ireland – a reflection of the political realities of the time.

King Charles II pulled together four regiments of infantry and cavalry, calling them his guards, at a cost of £122,000 from his general budget. This became the foundation of the permanent English Army. By 1685, it had grown to number 7,500 soldiers in marching regiments, and 1,400 men permanently stationed in garrisons. A Monmouth Rebellion in 1685 allowed successor King James II to raise the forces to 20,000 men. There were 37,000 in 1678, when England played a role in the closing stage of the cross-channel Franco-Dutch War. After Protestant dual Monarchs William III, formerly William of the Dutch House of Orange, and his wife Mary II's joint accession to the throne after a short constitutional crisis with Parliament sending Mary's father, predecessor King James II, (who remained a Catholic) during his brief controversial reign, off the throne and into exile. England then involved itself in the War of the Grand Alliance on the Continent, primarily to prevent a possible French Catholic monarch organizing an invasion restoring the exiled James II (Queen Mary's father and still a Roman Catholic). [33] Later in 1689, William III to solidify his and Mary's hold on the monarchy, expanded the new English army to 74,000, and then a few years later to 94,000 in 1694. Parliament was very nervous and reduced the cadre to 70,000 in 1697. Scotland and Ireland had theoretically separate military establishments, but they were unofficially merged with the English Crown force. [34] [35]

The growth was erratic, driven by external threats and internal politics. The expansion under William III, a response to continental entanglements and the fear of a Catholic restoration, highlights the delicate balance of power. The reduction by Parliament, a clear signal of its unease with a large standing army, even under a Protestant monarch. The unofficial merging of Scottish and Irish forces, a precursor to the formal union.

John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough, was one of the first generals in the new British Army and fought in the War of the Spanish Succession. He was a noted ancestor of Sir Winston S. Churchill, later famous Prime Minister during World War II.

A name that echoes through history. Marlborough, a military genius, and a distant ancestor of another figure who would shape the nation's destiny in its darkest hour. The lineage of command, the weight of inheritance.

By the time of the 1707 Acts of Union, many regiments of the English and Scottish armies were combined under one operational command and stationed in the Netherlands for the War of the Spanish Succession. Although all the regiments were now part of the new British military establishment, [3] they remained under the old operational-command structure and retained much of the institutional ethos, customs and traditions of the standing armies created shortly after the Restoration of the Monarchy 47 years earlier. The order of seniority of the most-senior British Army line regiments is based on that of the earlier English army. Although technically the Scots Royal Regiment of Foot was raised in 1633 and is the oldest Regiment of the Line, [36] Scottish and Irish regiments were only allowed to take a rank in the English army on the date of their arrival in England (or the date when they were first placed on the English establishment). In 1694, a board of general officers was convened to decide the rank of English, Irish and Scots regiments serving in the Netherlands; the regiment which became known as the Scots Greys were designated the 4th Dragoons because there were three English regiments raised prior to 1688 when the Scots Greys were first placed in the English establishment. In 1713, when a new board of general officers was convened to decide the rank of several regiments, the seniority of the Scots Greys was reassessed and based on their June 1685 entry into England. At that time there was only one English regiment of dragoons, and the Scots Greys eventually received the British Army rank of 2nd Dragoons. [37]

The formal union. The blending of armies, yet the retention of distinct identities. The seniority disputes, the subtle hierarchies that persisted. Even in a unified force, the old divisions lingered, shaping precedence and tradition.

British Empire (1707–1914)

This is the era of global projection. The Army as an instrument of empire, its reach extending across continents. A period of significant expansion, and often, significant bloodshed.

After 1707, British continental policy was to contain expansion by competing powers such as France and Spain. Although Spain was the dominant global power during the previous two centuries and the chief threat to England's early trans-Atlantic colonial ambitions, its influence was now waning. The territorial ambitions of the French, however, led to the War of the Spanish Succession [38] and the later Napoleonic Wars. [39]

The primary strategic objective: containment. The shifting balance of power. From Spain to France, the rivals changed, but the underlying tension remained.

Although the Royal Navy is widely regarded as vital to the rise of the British Empire, the British Army played an important role in the formation of colonies, protectorates and dominions in the Americas, Africa, Asia, India and Australasia. [40] British soldiers captured strategically important sites and territories, with the army involved in wars to secure the empire's borders, internal safety and support friendly governments and princes. Among these actions were the French and Indian War / Seven Years' War, [41] the American Revolutionary War, [42] the Napoleonic Wars, [39] the First and Second Opium Wars, [43] the Boxer Rebellion, [44] the New Zealand Wars, [45] the Australian frontier wars, [46] the Sepoy Rebellion of 1857, [47] the first and second Boer Wars, [48] the Fenian raids, [49] the Irish War of Independence, [50] interventions in Afghanistan (intended to maintain a buffer state between British India and the Russian Empire) [51] and the Crimean War (to keep the Russian Empire to the north on the Black Sea at a safe distance by aiding the Ottoman Empire). [52] Like the English Army, the British Army fought the kingdoms of Spain, France (including the First French Empire) and the Netherlands (Dutch Republic) for supremacy in North America and the West Indies. With native and provincial and colonial assistance, the Army conquered New France in the French and Indian War (North American theatre) of the parallel Seven Years' War [41] and suppressed a Native / Indian North Americans uprising in Pontiac's War around the Great Lakes. [53] The British Army was defeated in the American Revolutionary War, losing the Thirteen Colonies but retaining The Canadas and The Maritimes as in British North America, including Bermuda (originally part of the Colony of Virginia, and which had been originally strongly sympathetic to the American colonial rebels early in the war). [54]

A sprawling list of conflicts, a testament to the relentless expansion of British influence. From colonial skirmishes to major European wars, the Army was the sharp edge of imperial policy. The loss of the Thirteen Colonies a significant setback, a reminder that even the mightiest can falter.

Halifax, Nova Scotia and Bermuda were to become Imperial fortresses (although Bermuda, being safer from attack over water and impervious to attack overland, quickly became the most important in British North America), along with Malta and Gibraltar, providing bases in the eastern Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea for Royal Navy squadrons to control the oceans and trade routes, and heavily garrisoned by the British Army both for defence of the bases and to provide mobile military forces to work with the Navy in amphibious operations throughout their regions. [55] [56] [57] [58] [59]

Strategic locations. Fortresses designed to project power and control vital sea lanes. Bermuda, a remote sentinel, a key piece in the global network of military outposts.

The Duke of Wellington and Field Marshal von Blücher's triumph over Napoleon Bonaparte at the Battle of Waterloo

Waterloo. A name that resonates with decisive victory. Wellington, a titan of military history, his campaigns shaping the course of Europe.

The British Army was heavily involved in the Napoleonic Wars, participating in a number of campaigns in Europe (including continuous deployment in the Peninsular War), the Caribbean, North Africa and North America. The war between the British and the First French Empire of Napoleon Bonaparte stretched around the world; at its peak in 1813, the regular army contained over 250,000 men. A coalition of Anglo-Dutch and Prussian armies under the Duke of Wellington and Field Marshal von Blücher finally defeated Napoleon at Waterloo in 1815. [60]

The sheer scale of the Napoleonic Wars. The global reach of the conflict. The British Army, a key player in a continent-wide struggle.

The English were involved politically and militarily in Ireland. The campaign of English republican Protector Oliver Cromwell involved uncompromising treatment of the Irish towns (most notably Drogheda and Wexford) which supported the Royalists during the English Civil War. The English Army (and the subsequent British Army) remained in Ireland primarily to suppress Irish revolts or disorder. In addition to its conflict with Irish nationalists, it was faced with the prospect of battling Anglo-Irish and Ulster Scots in Ireland who were angered by unfavourable taxation of Irish produce imported into Britain. With other Irish groups, they raised a volunteer army and threatened to emulate the American colonists if their conditions were not met. Learning from their experience in America, the British government sought a political solution. The British Army fought Irish rebels—Protestant and Catholic—primarily in Ulster and Leinster (Wolfe Tone's United Irishmen) in the 1798 rebellion. [61]

A long and often brutal history in Ireland. The legacy of Cromwell, the persistent presence of the Army, the complex interplay of religious and political grievances. A constant source of tension, a drain on resources and reputation.

Battle of Rorke's Drift, a small British force repelled an attack by overwhelming Zulu forces; eleven Victoria Crosses were awarded for its defence.

Rorke's Drift. A small engagement, immortalized in popular culture. A testament to British discipline and bravery, even against overwhelming odds. The Victoria Cross, the ultimate recognition of valour.

In addition to battling the armies of other European empires (and its former colonies, the United States, in the War of 1812), [62] the British Army fought the Chinese in the First and Second Opium Wars [43] and the Boxer Rebellion, [44] Māori tribes in the first of the New Zealand Wars, [45] Nawab Shiraj-ud-Daula's forces and British East India Company mutineers in the Sepoy Rebellion of 1857, [48] the Boers in the first and second Boer Wars, [48] Irish Fenians in Canada during the Fenian raids [49] and Irish separatists in the Anglo-Irish War. [43] The increasing demands of imperial expansion and the inadequacy and inefficiency of the underfunded British Army, Militia, Ordnance Military Corps, Yeomanry and Volunteer Force after the Napoleonic Wars led to series of reforms following the failures of the Crimean War. [63]

A relentless cycle of conflict. The Opium Wars, the colonial uprisings, the internal strife. The constant pressure of maintaining an empire, and the resulting strain on the military. The Crimean War, a particularly stark illustration of the need for reform.

Establishment and strength of the British Army, excluding Indian native troops stationed in India, prior to August 1914

Inspired by the successes of the Prussian Army (which relied on short-term conscription of all eligible young men to maintain a large reserve of recently discharged soldiers, ready to be recalled on the outbreak of war to immediately bring the small peacetime regular army up to strength), the Regular Reserve of the British Army was originally created in 1859 by Secretary of State for War Sidney Herbert, and re-organised under the Reserve Force Act 1867. Prior to this, a soldier was generally enlisted into the British Army for a 21-year engagement, following which (should he survive so long) he was discharged as a Pensioner. Pensioners were sometimes still employed on garrison duties, as were younger soldiers no longer deemed fit for expeditionary service who were generally organised in invalid units or returned to the regimental depot for home service. The cost of paying pensioners, and the obligation the government was under to continue to employ invalids as well as soldiers deemed by their commanding officers as detriments to their units were motivations to change this system. The long period of engagement also discouraged many potential recruits. The long service enlistments were consequently replaced with short service enlistments, with undesirable soldiers not permitted to re-engage on the completion of their first engagement. The size of the army also fluctuated greatly, increasing in war time, and drastically shrinking with peace. Battalions posted on garrison duty overseas were allowed an increase on their normal peacetime establishment, which resulted in their having surplus men on their return to a Home station. Consequently, soldiers engaging on short term enlistments were enabled to serve several years with the colours and the remainder in the Regular Reserve, remaining liable for recall to the colours if required. Among the other benefits, this thereby enabled the British Army to have a ready pool of recently trained men to draw upon in an emergency. The name of the Regular Reserve (which for a time was divided into a First Class and a Second Class ) has resulted in confusion with the Reserve Forces , which were the pre-existing part-time, local-service home-defence forces that were auxiliary to the British Army (or Regular Force ), but not originally part of it: the Yeomanry, Militia (or Constitutional Force ) and Volunteer Force. These were consequently also referred to as Auxiliary Forces or Local Forces . [64]

The reforms were necessary. The Prussian model, a reserve force ready for immediate deployment, was influential. The shift from long-term enlistment to short-term engagements with a reserve component. A more flexible, responsive army. The confusion over terminology – Regular Reserve versus Reserve Forces – is a classic example of bureaucratic entanglement.

The late-19th-century Cardwell and Childers Reforms gave the army its modern shape and redefined its regimental system. [65] The 1907 Haldane Reforms created the Territorial Force as the army's volunteer reserve component, merging and reorganising the Volunteer Force and Yeomanry, while the Militia was replaced by the Special Reserve. [66]

Further refinements. The Cardwell and Childers Reforms shaping the army's structure. The Haldane Reforms creating the Territorial Force, a more integrated reserve. These weren't just administrative changes; they were fundamental shifts in how the army was organized and perceived.

World Wars (1914–1945)

The crucible. The Great Wars. Unprecedented scale, unimaginable loss. The Army was tested to its limits, and beyond.

British First World War Mark I tank; the guidance wheels behind the main body were later scrapped as unnecessary. Armoured vehicles of the era required considerable infantry and artillery support. (Photo by Ernest Brooks)

The dawn of mechanized warfare. The tank, a revolutionary, if crude, weapon. The early days were a brutal learning curve.

Led by their piper, men of the 7th Battalion, Seaforth Highlanders (part of the 46th (Highland) Brigade), advance through Normandy during Operation Epsom on 26 June 1944

A striking image. The piper leading the charge, a blend of ancient tradition and modern warfare. The Seaforth Highlanders, a unit with a proud lineage, facing the grim reality of Operation Epsom.

Great Britain was challenged by other powers, primarily the German Empire and Nazi Germany, during the 20th century. A century earlier it vied with Napoleonic France for global pre-eminence, and Hanoverian Britain's natural allies were the kingdoms and principalities of northern Germany. By the middle of the 19th century, Britain and France were allies in preventing Russia's appropriation of the Ottoman Empire, although the fear of French invasion led shortly afterwards to the creation of the Volunteer Force. By the first decade of the 20th century, the United Kingdom was allied with France (by the Entente Cordiale) and Russia (which had a secret agreement with France for mutual support in a war against the Prussian-led German Empire and the Austro-Hungarian Empire). [67]

The shifting alliances. The complex web of international relations that led to global conflict. From rivals to allies, and back again. The Entente Cordiale, a fragile peace that ultimately failed.

When the First World War broke out in August 1914 the British Army sent the British Expeditionary Force (BEF), consisting mainly of regular army troops, to France and Belgium. [68] The fighting bogged down into static trench warfare for the remainder of the war. In 1915 the army created the Mediterranean Expeditionary Force to invade the Ottoman Empire via Gallipoli, an unsuccessful attempt to capture Constantinople and secure a sea route to Russia. [69]

The Western Front. The futility of trench warfare. Gallipoli, a disastrous campaign, a stark reminder of the costs of ambition. The BEF, decimated and rebuilt, a cycle of loss and resilience.

The First World War was the most devastating in British military history, with nearly 800,000 men killed and over two million wounded. Early in the war, the BEF was virtually destroyed and was replaced first by volunteers and then by a conscript force. Major battles included those at the Somme and Passchendaele. [70] Advances in technology saw the advent of the tank [71] (and the creation of the Royal Tank Regiment) and advances in aircraft design (and the creation of the Royal Flying Corps) which would be decisive in future battles. [72] Trench warfare dominated Western Front strategy for most of the war, and the use of chemical weapons (disabling and poison gases) added to the devastation. [73]

The staggering casualty figures. The transition to conscription. The introduction of new technologies – tanks, aircraft – that would forever change warfare. The horrors of chemical weapons, a grim footnote to the conflict.

The Second World War broke out in September 1939 with the Soviet and German Army's invasion of Poland. [74] British assurances to the Poles led the British Empire to declare war on Germany. As in the First World War, a relatively small BEF was sent to France [74] but then hastily evacuated from Dunkirk as the German forces swept through the Low Countries and across France in May 1940. [75]

The initial shock of Dunkirk. A desperate retreat, a testament to the resilience that would follow. The BEF, once again, facing overwhelming odds.

After the British Army recovered from its earlier defeats, it defeated the Germans and Italians at the Second Battle of El Alamein in North Africa in 1942–1943 and helped drive them from Africa. It then fought through Italy [76] and, with the help of American, Canadian, Australian, New Zealand, Indian and Free French forces, [77] was the principal organiser and participant in the D-Day invasion of Normandy on 6 June 1944; nearly half the Allied soldiers were British. [78] In the Far East, the British Army rallied against the Japanese in the Burma Campaign and regained the British Far Eastern colonial possessions. [79]

The tide turns. El Alamein, a crucial victory. The grinding campaigns in Italy and Burma. The immense undertaking of D-Day, a testament to Allied cooperation. The British Army, a central player in the liberation of Europe and the Pacific theatre.

Postcolonial era (1945–2000)

1945 Order of Precedence of the British Army

A list, a formal ranking. Even in obsolescence, there's a hierarchy.

After the Second World War the British Army was significantly reduced in size, although National Service continued until 1960. [80] This period saw decolonisation begin with the partition and independence of India and Pakistan, followed by the independence of British colonies in Africa and Asia.

The winding down of empire. The redrawing of maps. The Army, forced to adapt to a world where its imperial role was diminishing.

The Corps Warrant, which is the official list of which bodies of the British Military (not to be confused with naval ) Forces were to be considered Corps of the British Army for the purposes of the Army Act, the Reserve Forces Act, 1882, and the Territorial and Reserve Forces Act, 1907, had not been updated since 1926 (Army Order 49 of 1926), although amendments had been made up to and including Army Order 67 of 1950. A new Corps Warrant was declared in 1951.

Bureaucracy. The rules and regulations that govern the organisation. The Corps Warrant, a document of record, a testament to the administrative machinery.

Although the British Army was a major participant in Korea in the early 1950s [80] and Suez in 1956, [81] during this period Britain's role in world events was reduced and the army was downsized. [82] The British Army of the Rhine, consisting of I (BR) Corps, remained in Germany as a bulwark against Soviet invasion. [83] The Cold War continued, with significant technological advances in warfare, and the army saw the introduction of new weapons systems. [84] Despite the decline of the British Empire, the army was engaged in Aden, [85] Indonesia, Cyprus, [85] Kenya [85] and Malaya. [86] In 1982, the British Army and the Royal Marines helped liberate the Falkland Islands during the conflict with Argentina after that country's invasion of the British territory. [87]

The Cold War era. A constant state of tension, a focus on Germany. The lingering conflicts in former colonies, the Falklands War, a sharp reminder of Britain's continued global interests.

In the three decades following 1969, the army was heavily deployed in Northern Ireland's Operation Banner to support the Royal Ulster Constabulary (later the Police Service of Northern Ireland) in their conflict with republican paramilitary groups. [88] The locally recruited Ulster Defence Regiment was formed, becoming home-service battalions of the Royal Irish Regiment in 1992 before it was disbanded in 2006. Over 700 soldiers were killed during the Troubles. Following the 1994–1996 IRA ceasefires and since 1997, demilitarisation has been part of the peace process and the military presence has been reduced. [89] On 25 June 2007 the 2nd Battalion of the Princess of Wales's Royal Regiment left the army complex in Bessbrook, County Armagh, ending the longest operation in British Army history. [90]

Northern Ireland. A protracted and difficult deployment. Operation Banner, a long shadow cast over the Army. The human cost, the complex political landscape. The eventual withdrawal, a sign of changing times.

Persian Gulf War

British APC passing by wrecked and abandoned vehicles along the "Highway of Death" in 1991.

The Gulf War. A swift, decisive conflict. The "Highway of Death," a grim symbol of the overwhelming coalition victory.

The British Army contributed 50,000 troops to the coalition which fought Iraq in the Persian Gulf War, [91] and British forces controlled Kuwait after its liberation. Forty-seven British military personnel died during the war. [92]

A significant contribution. A clear objective, and a successful conclusion, at a relatively low cost in British lives.

Balkan conflicts

British Army vehicles in a staging area before being deployed to Bosnia

The Balkans. A complex, protracted engagement. Peacekeeping and stabilization, a far cry from traditional warfare.

The army was deployed to former Yugoslavia in 1992. Initially part of the United Nations Protection Force, [93] in 1995 its command was transferred to the Implementation Force (IFOR) and then to the Stabilisation Force in Bosnia and Herzegovina (SFOR); [94] the commitment rose to over 10,000 troops. In 1999, British forces under SFOR command were sent to Kosovo and the contingent increased to 19,000 troops. [95] Between early 1993 and June 2010, 72 British military personnel died during operations in the former Yugoslavian countries of Bosnia, Kosovo and Macedonia. [96]

The UN and NATO involvement. A multinational effort to bring order to a fractured region. The numbers, the casualties, a testament to the difficulties of peacekeeping.

The Troubles

Although there have been permanent garrisons in Northern Ireland throughout its history, the British Army was deployed as a peacekeeping force from 1969 to 2007 in Operation Banner. [97] Initially, this was (in the wake of unionist attacks on nationalist communities in Derry [98] and Belfast) [99] to prevent further loyalist attacks on Catholic communities; it developed into support of the Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC) and its successor, the Police Service of Northern Ireland (PSNI) against the Provisional Irish Republican Army (PIRA). [100] Under the 1998 Good Friday Agreement, there was a gradual reduction in the number of soldiers deployed. [101] In 2005, after the PIRA declared a ceasefire, the British Army dismantled posts, withdrew many troops and restored troop levels to those of a peacetime garrison. [102]

Operation Banner ended at midnight on 31 July 2007 after about 38 years of continuous deployment, the longest in British Army history. [103] According to an internal document released in 2007, the British Army had failed to defeat the IRA but made it impossible for them to win by violence. Operation Helvetic replaced Operation Banner in 2007, maintaining fewer service personnel in a more-benign environment. [103] [104] Of the 300,000 troops who served in Northern Ireland since 1969, there were 763 British military personnel killed [105] and 306 killed by the British military, mostly civilians. [106] An estimated 100 soldiers committed suicide during Operation Banner or soon afterwards and a similar number died in accidents. A total of 6,116 were wounded. [107]

The longest operation. A constant, grinding presence. The assessment that the IRA was not defeated, but neutralized. The tragic human cost, the suicides, the accidents – a stark reminder of the psychological toll.

Sierra Leone

The British Army deployed to Sierra Leone for Operation Palliser in 1999, under United Nations resolutions, to aid the government in quelling violent uprisings by militiamen. British troops also provided support during the 2014 West African Ebola virus epidemic. [108]

A humanitarian and security role. Intervention under UN mandate. The support during the Ebola epidemic, a different kind of battlefield.

Recent history (2000–present)

War in Afghanistan

Royal Anglian Regiment in Helmand Province

Helmand Province. A name that evokes images of intense combat, of a protracted and difficult campaign. The Royal Anglian Regiment, part of that struggle.

In November 2001, as part of Operation Enduring Freedom with the United States, the United Kingdom deployed forces in Afghanistan to topple the Taliban in Operation Herrick. [109] The 3rd Division were sent to Kabul to assist in the liberation of the capital and defeat Taliban forces in the mountains. In 2006 the British Army began concentrating on fighting Taliban forces and bringing security to Helmand Province, with about 9,500 British troops (including marines, airmen and sailors) deployed at its peak [110] —the second-largest force after that of the US. [111] In December 2012 Prime Minister David Cameron announced that the combat mission would end in 2014, and troop numbers gradually fell as the Afghan National Army took over the brunt of the fighting. Between 2001 and 26 April 2014 a total of 453 British military personnel died in Afghan operations. [112] Operation Herrick ended with the handover of Camp Bastion on 26 October 2014, [113] but the British Army maintained a deployment in Afghanistan as part of Operation Toral. [114]

The long shadow of Operation Herrick. The high deployment numbers, the close partnership with the US. The eventual withdrawal, the handover to Afghan forces, and the lingering presence. The casualty figures, a somber count of lives lost.

Following an announcement by the US Government of the end of their operations in the Afghanistan, the Ministry of Defence announced in April 2021 that British forces would withdraw from the country by 11 September 2021. [115] It was later reported that all UK troops would be out by early July. [116] Following the collapse of the Afghan Army, and the completion of the withdrawal of civilians, all British troops had left by the end of August 2021. [117]

The final withdrawal. The chaotic end. The rapid collapse of the Afghan government. A somber conclusion to a two-decade commitment.

Iraq War

British soldiers from the 1st Battalion, Royal Regiment of Fusiliers battlegroup engage Iraqi positions with an 81mm mortar south of Basra

Operation Telic. The Iraq War. The 1st Battalion, Royal Regiment of Fusiliers, engaged in combat. The 81mm mortar, a familiar tool of indirect fire.

In 2003, the United Kingdom was a major contributor to the invasion of Iraq, sending a force of over 46,000 military personnel. The British Army controlled southern Iraq, and maintained a peace-keeping presence in Basra. [118] All British troops were withdrawn from Iraq by 30 April 2009, after the Iraqi government refused to extend their mandate. [119] One hundred and seventy-nine British military personnel died in Iraqi operations. [96] The British Armed Forces returned to Iraq in 2014 as part of Operation Shader to counter the Islamic State (ISIL). [120]

A significant deployment for the invasion. The occupation and subsequent withdrawal. The return to Iraq, this time to combat ISIL. The casualty count, a stark reminder of the ongoing costs.

Recent military aid

The British Army maintains a standing liability to support the civil authorities in certain circumstances, usually in either niche capabilities (e.g. explosive ordnance removal) or in general support of the civil authorities when their capacity is exceeded. [121] [122] In recent years this has been seen as army personnel supporting the civil authorities in the face of the 2001 United Kingdom foot-and-mouth outbreak, the 2002 firefighters strike, widespread flooding in 2005, 2007, 2009, 2013 and 2014, Operation Temperer following the Manchester Arena bombing in 2017 and, most recently, Operation Rescript during the COVID-19 pandemic. [123] [124]

The Army as a domestic support service. Responding to natural disasters, strikes, and pandemics. A shift in focus, a demonstration of its utility beyond the battlefield.

Baltic states

Since 2016, the British Army has maintained a presence in the Baltic states in support of the NATO Enhanced Forward Presence strategy which responded to the 2014 Russian annexation of Crimea. The British Army leads a multinational armoured battlegroup in Estonia under Operation Cabrit and contributes troops to another military battle group in Poland. [125] As part of the NATO plans, Britain has committed a full mechanized infantry brigade to be on a high state of readiness to defend Estonia. [126]

A renewed focus on Eastern Europe. NATO's Enhanced Forward Presence as a deterrent. The commitment to collective security in the face of Russian assertiveness.

Ukraine

Between 2015 and 2022, the British Army deployed Short Term Training Teams (STTTs) to Ukraine under Operation Orbital to help train the Armed Forces of Ukraine against further Russian aggression. [127] This operation was succeeded by Operation Interflex in July 2022. [128]

Training Ukrainian forces. A response to Russian aggression. The ongoing commitment to supporting Ukraine's defence capabilities.

Modern army

Personnel

The Blues and Royals Trooping the Colour in 2013

A ceremonial display. A glimpse of the pageantry that still surrounds the Army, even in its modern form.

The British Army has been a volunteer force since national service ended during the 1960s. [80] Since the creation of the part-time, reserve Territorial Force in 1908 (renamed the Territorial Army in 1921 and the Army Reserve in 2014), the full-time British Army has been known as the Regular Army. In July 2020 there were just over 78,800 Regulars, with a target strength of 82,000, and just over 30,000 Army Reservists, with a target strength of 30,000. [129] All former Regular Army personnel may also be recalled to duty in exceptional circumstances during the 6-year period following completion of their Regular service, which creates an additional force known as the Regular Reserve. [130]

The all-volunteer force. The distinction between Regular and Reserve. The Regular Reserve, a pool of experienced personnel available in times of crisis.

As of January 2025, the British Army had 73,847 regular soldiers, 4,127 Gurkhas, and 25,742 volunteer reserve personnel. [6] Under the recommendations of the 2025 Strategic Defence Review, the number of regular soldiers is planned to stop declining and eventually increase to 76,000. [131]

The current numbers. The planned increase, a response to perceived threats or a desire for greater capability.

The table below illustrates British Army personnel figures from 1710 to 2025.

British Army strength [147] [148]

This table is a stark representation of the Army's fluctuating size, its ebb and flow over centuries, dictated by the exigencies of war and peace, empire and retrenchment.

Equipment

Infantry

The British Army's basic weapon is the 5.56 mm L85A2 or L85A3 assault rifle, with some specialist personnel using the L22A2 carbine variant (pilots and some tank crew). The weapon was traditionally equipped with either iron sights or an optical SUSAT, although other optical sights have been subsequently purchased to supplement these. [150] The weapon can be enhanced further utilising the Picatinny rail with attachments such as the L17A2 under-barrel grenade launcher. [151] In 2023, the Army Special Operations Brigade, which includes the Ranger Regiment, began using the L403A1, an AR-pattern rifle also used by the Royal Marines. [152] An initiative to find a replacement for the SA80 family, known as Project Grayburn, was in the concept phase in 2025, [153] and is expected to enter the assessment phase in 2026. [154]

The standard issue. The L85A2/A3, a workhorse. The constant quest for improvement, for upgrades, for that elusive perfect weapon. The L403A1, a new addition, hinting at evolving tactical needs.

Some soldiers are equipped with the 7.62mm L129A1 sharpshooter rifle, [155] which in 2018 formally replaced the L86A2 Light Support Weapon. Support fire is provided by the L7 general-purpose machine gun (GPMG), [156] and indirect fire is provided by L16 81mm mortars. Sniper rifles include the L118A1 7.62 mm, L115A3 and the AW50F, all manufactured by Accuracy International. [157] The British Army utilises the Glock 17 as its side arm. [151]

The support weapons. The L129A1, for precision. The GPMG, a reliable workhorse. The sniper rifles, instruments of silent, deadly force. The ubiquitous Glock 17, a sidearm for close encounters.

Anti tank guided weapons include the Javelin, the medium range anti-tank guided weapon replacement for Milan, with overfly and direct attack modes of operation, and the NLAW. The Next-generation Light Anti-tank Weapon (NLAW) is the first, non-expert, short-range, anti-tank missile that rapidly knocks out any main battle tank in just one shot by striking it from above. [158]

Anti-tank capabilities. The Javelin and NLAW, modern weapons designed to neutralize armored threats. The emphasis on effectiveness, on taking out the target with precision.

Armour

The army's main battle tank is the Challenger 2, which is being upgraded to Challenger 3. [159] [160] It is supported by the Warrior tracked armoured vehicle as the primary infantry fighting vehicle, [161] (which will soon be replaced by the Boxer 8x8 armoured fighting vehicle) and the Bulldog armoured personnel carrier. [162] The Ajax armoured fighting vehicle is also being brought into service. Light armoured units often utilise the Supacat "Jackal" MWMIK and Coyote tactical support vehicle for reconnaissance and fire support. [163]

The armored fist. The Challenger 2, a formidable tank, undergoing modernization. The Warrior and the incoming Boxer, for transporting and supporting infantry. The Ajax, a new generation of reconnaissance vehicle. The agile Jackal and Coyote, for speed and maneuverability.

Artillery

The army has three main artillery systems: the M270 multiple launch rocket system (MLRS), the Archer and the L118 light gun. [164] The MLRS, first used in Operation Granby, has an 85-kilometre (53 mi) standard range, or with the PrSM, up to 500 km. [165] The Archer is a 155 mm self-propelled armoured gun with a 50-kilometre (31 mi) range. The L118 light gun is a 105 mm towed gun, which is typically towed by a Pinzgauer all-terrain vehicle. [166] The army plans to replace the Archer with the RCH 155 in the near future. [167]

Fire support. The devastating power of the MLRS. The mobile Archer. The versatile L118 light gun. The continuous evolution of artillery systems, seeking greater range and precision.

To identify artillery targets, the army operates the TAIPAN artillery detection radar [168] and utilises artillery sound ranging. For air defence it uses the new Sky Sabre system, which in 2021 replaced the Rapier. [170] It also deploys the Very Short-Range Air Defence (VSHORAD) Starstreak HVM (high-velocity missile) launched by a single soldier or from a Stormer HVM vehicle-mounted launcher. [171]

Target acquisition and air defence. The technology to detect and neutralize threats. The Sky Sabre, a modern air defence system. The Starstreak HVM, for immediate, close-in protection.

Protected mobility

Where armour is not required or mobility and speed are favoured the British Army utilises protected patrol vehicles, such as the Panther variant of the Iveco LMV, the Foxhound, and variants of the Cougar family (such as the Ridgeback, Husky and Mastiff). [172] For day-to-day utility work the army commonly uses the Land Rover Wolf, which is based on the Land Rover Defender. [173]

Vehicles designed for protection and speed. The Panther, Foxhound, and Cougar variants. The ubiquitous Land Rover Wolf, a workhorse for everyday tasks.

Engineers, utility and signals

Specialist engineering vehicles include bomb-disposal robots such as the T7 Multi-Mission Robotic System and the modern variants of the Armoured Vehicle Royal Engineers, including the Titan bridge-layer, Trojan armoured engineer vehicle, Terrier armoured digger. [174] Day-to-day utility work uses a series of support vehicles, including six-, nine- and fifteen-tonne MAN trucks, Oshkosh heavy-equipment transporters (HET), close-support tankers, quad bikes and ambulances. [175] [176] Tactical communication uses the Bowman radio system, and operational or strategic communication is controlled by the Royal Corps of Signals. [177]

The supporting arms. Engineers, logisticians, communicators. The vital infrastructure that enables the fighting force. The robots for bomb disposal, the bridge-layers, the heavy transport. The Bowman, the nervous system of the army.

Aviation

The Army Air Corps (AAC) provides direct aviation support, with the Royal Air Force providing support helicopters. The primary attack helicopter is the Boeing AH-64E Apache which replaced the AgustaWestland Apache AH-1 in the anti-tank, anti-air defence, and anti-armour role. [178] The AgustaWestland AW159 Wildcat is a dedicated intelligence, surveillance, target acquisition, and reconnaissance (ISTAR) helicopter. [179] The Eurocopter AS 365N Dauphin is used for special operations aviation, primarily counter terrorism operations, within the UK. [180] The army operates unmanned aerial vehicles in a surveillance role, such as the small Lockheed Martin Desert Hawk III. [181] [182]

The air arm. The Apache attack helicopter, a potent weapon. The Wildcat for reconnaissance. The Dauphin for special operations. And the growing use of unmanned aerial vehicles, the eyes in the sky.

Current deployments

Low-intensity operations

Location Date Details
Iraq Since 2014 Operation Shader: The UK has a leading role in the 67-member Global Coalition committed to defeating ISIL. The coalition includes Iraq, European nations and the US. British soldiers are not in a combat role in Iraq but are on the ground with coalition partners providing training and equipment to Iraqi Security Forces (ISF) and Kurdish Security Forces (KSF). There were approximately 400 military personnel in Iraq in 2020. [183]
Cyprus Since 1964 Operation Tosca: There were 275 troops deployed as part of the UNFICYP in 2016. [184]
Estonia Since 2017 NATO Enhanced Forward Presence: The British Army deploys approximately 900 troops to Estonia and 150 to Poland as part of its commitment to NATO. [185]
Africa Since 2019 The British Army maintains several short-term military training teams to help build the capacity of national military forces, ensuring a number of states across Africa can respond appropriately and proportionally to the security threats they face, including terrorism, the illegal wildlife trade, violations of human rights and emerging humanitarian crises. [146]

Permanent overseas postings

| Location | Date | Details