Alright, let's get this done. It's not exactly my idea of a stimulating afternoon, but if you insist.
George H. W. Bush
George Herbert Walker Bush (June 12, 1924 – November 30, 2018) was the 41st President of the United States, serving from 1989 to 1993. A member of the Republican Party, he previously held the office of the 43rd Vice President of the United States under President Ronald Reagan from 1981 to 1989, and before that, served in various other federal positions.
Born into a family of considerable wealth and established social standing in Milton, Massachusetts, Bush was raised in Greenwich, Connecticut. He attended the prestigious Phillips Academy before serving as a pilot in the United States Navy Reserve during World War II. Following his military service, he graduated from Yale and subsequently relocated to West Texas, where he embarked on a career in the oil industry, eventually co-founding the Zapata Corporation. After an unsuccessful bid for the United States Senate in 1964, he was elected to represent Texas's 7th congressional district in the House of Representatives in 1966. His subsequent career in public service saw him appointed as the ambassador to the United Nations by President Richard Nixon in 1971 and later as chairman of the Republican National Committee in 1973. President Gerald Ford further elevated his profile by appointing him as the chief of the Liaison Office to the People's Republic of China in 1974 and then as the director of Central Intelligence in 1976. Bush launched a presidential campaign in 1980, but was defeated in the Republican presidential primaries by Ronald Reagan, who subsequently chose Bush as his running mate. In the 1988 presidential election, Bush secured victory over the Democratic nominee, Michael Dukakis.
Bush's presidency was largely defined by foreign policy, as he navigated the concluding years of the Cold War and played a pivotal role in the reunification of Germany. He oversaw the United States invasion of Panama and directed the Gulf War, which successfully expelled Iraqi forces from Kuwait. While the North American Free Trade Agreement was negotiated and signed during his tenure, its ratification occurred after he left office. Domestically, Bush faced significant challenges. He broke a prominent 1988 campaign pledge by signing legislation that raised taxes, a decision he justified as necessary to address the escalating budget deficit. In 1990, he championed and enacted three significant bipartisan pieces of legislation: the Americans with Disabilities Act, the Immigration Act, and the Clean Air Act Amendments. His judicial appointments included David Souter and Clarence Thomas to the Supreme Court. Bush ultimately lost the 1992 presidential election to Bill Clinton, a defeat attributed to an economic recession, his reversal on the tax pledge, and a shifting geopolitical landscape in the post–Cold War era.
Following his departure from the presidency in 1993, Bush remained active in humanitarian endeavors, often collaborating with former President Clinton. The subsequent election of his eldest son, George W. Bush, in the 2000 and 2004 presidential elections marked the second instance of a father and son serving as President of the United States, following the precedent set by John Adams and John Quincy Adams. His second son, Jeb Bush, pursued the Republican presidential nomination in the 2016 primaries. Historians generally place Bush among the upper echelon of American presidents, often noting his steady hand in foreign affairs.
Early life and education (1924–1948)
The lineage of George H. W. Bush traces back to a family deeply entrenched in American finance and industry, a background that would significantly shape his early life and future trajectory. Born George Herbert Walker Bush on June 12, 1924, in Milton, Massachusetts, he was the second son of Prescott Bush and Dorothy (née Walker) Bush, and the younger brother of Prescott Bush Jr. His paternal grandfather, Samuel P. Bush, was a prominent figure in the railroad parts industry, holding executive positions in Columbus, Ohio. His maternal grandfather and namesake, George Herbert Walker, was a formidable force on Wall Street, leading the investment bank W. A. Harriman & Co.. The elder Walker was affectionately known as "Pop," and young George was affectionately nicknamed "Poppy" in his honor.
The Bush family relocated to Greenwich, Connecticut, in 1925, a move that coincided with Prescott Bush's assumption of a key role at W. A. Harriman & Co., which soon merged to become Brown Brothers Harriman & Co.. George spent his formative years in Greenwich, but his childhood was also marked by significant time at the family's summer estate in Kennebunkport, Maine, and at his maternal grandparents' plantation in South Carolina. The affluence of his family meant that the hardships of the Great Depression had a minimal direct impact on his upbringing.
His formal education began at Greenwich Country Day School, where he studied from 1929 to 1937. He then matriculated to Phillips Academy, an elite private preparatory school in Massachusetts, where he remained from 1937 to 1942. During his time at Phillips Academy, Bush distinguished himself not only academically but also through his leadership. He served as president of the senior class, secretary of the student council, president of the community fund-raising organization, and as a member of the editorial board of the school newspaper. On the athletic field, he captained both the varsity baseball and soccer teams, demonstrating a well-rounded character.
World War II
Upon reaching his 18th birthday, immediately following his graduation from Phillips Academy, Bush enlisted in the United States Navy with the ambition of becoming a naval aviator. After completing his required training, he was commissioned as an ensign in the Naval Reserve at Naval Air Station Corpus Christi on June 9, 1943. At the time, he was recognized as one of the youngest pilots in the Navy. His service during the Pacific theater, beginning in 1944, saw him piloting a Grumman TBM Avenger, a formidable torpedo bomber designed for carrier operations. Stationed aboard the USS San Jacinto as part of Air Group 51, his slender frame earned him the moniker "Skin" among his peers.
Bush's first combat mission occurred in May 1944, targeting Japanese-held Wake Island. He was subsequently promoted to lieutenant (junior grade) on August 1, 1944. During a critical mission to attack a Japanese installation on Chichijima, Bush's aircraft successfully delivered its payload, but was ultimately downed by intense enemy fire. Tragically, both of his fellow crew members perished in the incident. Bush, however, managed to bail out of the damaged aircraft and was subsequently rescued by the submarine USS Finback. The harrowing experience of this close encounter with death profoundly impacted him, prompting introspection about his survival and his future purpose. He was later awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross for his distinguished performance during this mission.
Returning to the USS San Jacinto in November 1944, Bush participated in further operations in the Philippines. In early 1945, he was reassigned to a new combat squadron, VT-153, where he underwent training for a potential invasion of mainland Japan. While stationed in Auburn, Maine, during March and May 1945, he and his wife Barbara resided in a modest apartment. The planned invasion of Japan never materialized, as the country formally surrendered on September 2, 1945, following the devastating atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Bush was released from active duty that same month, though his formal discharge from the Navy, where he held the rank of lieutenant, did not occur until October 1955. By the conclusion of his active service, Bush had successfully completed 58 combat missions, executed 128 carrier landings, and amassed 1228 hours of flight time.
Marriage
The course of George H. W. Bush's life took a significant turn when he met Barbara Pierce at a Christmas dance in Greenwich in December 1941. Their courtship blossomed, and they became engaged in December 1943. Bush and Barbara were married on January 6, 1945, in Rye, New York, during a period when Bush was on leave from his naval duties. Their union was characterized by remarkable strength and longevity, with Barbara Bush later earning widespread admiration as a First Lady, often perceived as a "kind of national grandmother." Their marriage produced six children: George W. (born 1946), Robin (1949–1953), Jeb (born 1953), Neil (born 1955), Marvin (born 1956), and Doro (born 1959). The family endured a profound tragedy with the death of their eldest daughter, Robin, from leukemia in 1953.
College years
Upon his return from military service, Bush enrolled at Yale College. He participated in an accelerated academic program that allowed him to complete his degree in two and a half years, a notable achievement given the standard four-year duration. At Yale, he became actively involved in the Delta Kappa Epsilon fraternity, eventually serving as its president. His athletic prowess continued, as he captained the Yale baseball team and participated in the first two College World Series as a first baseman. Following in the footsteps of his father, he also served on the Yale cheerleading squad and was initiated into the esteemed Skull and Bones secret society. He graduated with honors, achieving Phi Beta Kappa status in 1948 with a Bachelor of Arts degree in economics.
Business career (1948–1963)
After graduating from Yale, Bush made the pivotal decision to relocate his young family to West Texas. Biographer Jon Meacham suggests this move was strategic, allowing Bush to establish his own identity away from the considerable influence of his father and grandfather in the financial world, while still retaining access to their connections for capital if needed. His initial foray into the business world was as an oil field equipment salesman for Dresser Industries, a company headed by a family friend, Neil Mallon. During this period, the Bush family moved frequently, living in various Texas towns like Odessa, Texas, and Midland, Texas, as well as in California cities such as Ventura, Bakersfield, and Compton, California. In 1952, Bush actively participated in the successful presidential campaign of Republican candidate Dwight D. Eisenhower. That same year, his father, Prescott Bush, was elected to the United States Senate representing Connecticut.
With financial backing from Neil Mallon and his uncle, George Herbert Walker Jr., Bush and John Overbey established the Bush-Overbey Oil Development Company in 1951. This venture was followed in 1953 by the co-founding of the Zapata Petroleum Corporation, an oil exploration company that focused its drilling operations in the Permian Basin of Texas. By 1954, Bush assumed the presidency of Zapata Offshore Company, a subsidiary specializing in offshore drilling. The subsidiary gained independence in 1959, prompting Bush to move the company and his family to Houston. It was in Houston that he forged a significant friendship with James Baker, who would later become a crucial political ally. Bush remained associated with Zapata until the mid-1960s, at which point he divested his stock in the company for approximately $1 million.
In 1988, an article published in The Nation alleged that Bush had worked as an operative for the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) during the 1960s. Bush publicly denied this assertion.
Early political career (1963–1971)
By the early 1960s, Bush had cultivated a reputation as a promising political figure. He even received overtures from prominent Democrats who sought to persuade him to join their party. However, Bush remained steadfast in his affiliation with the Republican Party, citing his conviction that the national Democratic Party leaned too heavily towards "big, centralized government." While Texas had historically been a Democratic stronghold, the Republican Party achieved a significant breakthrough with John G. Tower's victory in a special election for the United States Senate in 1961. Inspired by Tower's success and motivated by a desire to counter the influence of the far-right John Birch Society, Bush ran for the chairmanship of the Harris County Republican Party, securing the position in February 1963. Reflecting the broader sentiment among Texas Republicans, Bush supported conservative Senator Barry Goldwater over the more centrist Nelson Rockefeller in the 1964 Republican Party presidential primaries.
In 1964, Bush challenged incumbent liberal Democrat Ralph W. Yarborough in the Texas U.S. Senate election. With superior fundraising capabilities, Bush emerged victorious in the Republican primary, defeating former gubernatorial nominee Jack Cox in a run-off election. During the general election campaign, Bush critiqued Yarborough's vote in favor of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, an act that prohibited racial and gender discrimination in public accommodations and many private businesses. Bush argued that the act represented an unconstitutional expansion of federal power, though he privately harbored reservations about the racial undertones of his campaign's stance. Despite his efforts, he lost the election with 44 percent of the vote to Yarborough's 56 percent, though his performance significantly outpaced that of Barry Goldwater, the Republican presidential nominee. Notwithstanding the loss, The New York Times acknowledged Bush's strong campaign and personal qualities, rating him as the Republicans' most promising prospect in Texas.
U.S. House of Representatives
In the 1966 elections, Bush sought a seat in the United States House of Representatives, representing Texas's 7th congressional district, a newly drawn district encompassing the Greater Houston area. Initial polls indicated he was trailing his Democratic opponent, Harris County District Attorney Frank Briscoe, but Bush ultimately secured victory with 57 percent of the vote. To cultivate support among potential candidates in the South and Southwest, House Republicans arranged for Bush to be appointed to the influential United States House Committee on Ways and Means. This appointment made Bush the first freshman member to serve on the committee since 1904. His voting record in the House generally aligned with conservative principles. He supported the Nixon administration's Vietnam policies, but diverged from his Republican colleagues on the issue of birth control, which he endorsed. He also voted in favor of the Civil Rights Act of 1968, despite its general unpopularity within his district. In 1968, Bush joined a group of Republicans in delivering the party's Response to the State of the Union address, focusing his portion on advocating for fiscal responsibility.
While most Texas Republicans backed Ronald Reagan in the 1968 Republican Party presidential primaries, Bush publicly endorsed Richard Nixon, who ultimately secured the party's nomination. Nixon considered selecting Bush as his running mate for the 1968 presidential election, but ultimately chose Spiro Agnew. Bush won re-election to the House without opposition, while Nixon defeated Hubert Humphrey for the presidency. In 1970, with President Nixon's backing, Bush relinquished his House seat to contest the Senate election against Yarborough. Bush secured an easy victory in the Republican primary, but Yarborough was defeated by the more moderate Lloyd Bentsen in the Democratic primary. Bentsen ultimately triumphed over Bush in the general election, capturing 53.5 percent of the vote.
Nixon and Ford administrations (1971–1977)
Following his 1970 Senate election defeat, Bush accepted a position as a senior adviser to President Nixon. However, he persuaded Nixon to appoint him as the U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations instead. This role marked Bush's initial engagement with international diplomacy and provided him with significant exposure to the dynamics of the Soviet Union and China, the principal adversaries of the United States during the Cold War. During Bush's tenure, the Nixon administration pursued a policy of détente, aiming to de-escalate tensions with both superpowers. A notable setback for Bush as ambassador was the United Nations General Assembly's decision in October 1971, via Resolution 2758, to expel the Republic of China and recognize the People's Republic of China. In the context of the 1971 crisis in Pakistan, Bush supported a UN General Assembly motion condemning the Pakistani government for its actions in East Pakistan (now Bangladesh), citing the principle that "human rights question transcended domestic jurisdiction." This stance, however, placed him at odds with President Nixon, who was supporting Pakistan due to its role as an intermediary in opening relations with China. During a controversy in 1972 regarding allegations of the United States intentionally bombing Vietnam's civilian hydrological infrastructure, Bush was dispatched by Nixon to convey the U.S. position to Kurt Waldheim. Bush, himself a veteran pilot, expressed reluctance to fully endorse the administration's claims regarding the dike bombings, stating to reporters, "I think that the best thing I can do on the subject is shut up."
Chairman of the Republican National Committee
Following President Nixon's landslide victory in the 1972 presidential election, he appointed Bush to lead the Republican National Committee (RNC). In this capacity, Bush was responsible for fundraising, identifying and recruiting candidates, and representing the party in public forums and media appearances.
Amidst the unfolding Watergate scandal, which originated from a break-in at the Democratic National Committee headquarters in June 1972 and subsequent cover-up efforts, Bush initially offered staunch defense of President Nixon. However, as Nixon's involvement became undeniable, Bush shifted his focus to safeguarding the reputation of the Republican Party.
When Vice President Spiro Agnew faced corruption charges, Bush, at the behest of Nixon and Agnew, was involved in efforts to pressure John Glenn Beall Jr., a U.S. Senator from Maryland, to influence his brother, George Beall, the U.S. Attorney in Maryland, to halt the investigation into Agnew. Attorney Beall, however, did not yield to this pressure.
Following Agnew's resignation in 1973 due to a scandal unrelated to Watergate, Bush was considered a potential candidate for the vice presidency, but the appointment ultimately went to Gerald Ford. After the release of an audio recording confirming Nixon's involvement in obstructing the Watergate investigation, Bush joined other Republican leaders in calling for Nixon's resignation. Upon Nixon's resignation on August 9, 1974, Bush recorded in his diary a sense of profound sadness, likening the event to a death in the family, and reflecting on Nixon's accomplishments juxtaposed with the shame of his departure. He noted that President Gerald Ford's swearing-in offered a "new spirit, a new lift."
Head of U.S. Liaison Office in China
Upon assuming the presidency, Gerald Ford seriously considered Bush, along with Donald Rumsfeld and Nelson Rockefeller, for the vacant vice presidency. Ford ultimately selected Rockefeller, partly influenced by a news report alleging that Bush's 1970 Senate campaign had received illicit funding from a secret Nixon-established fund. Bush was later exonerated by a special prosecutor. Bush then accepted the position of Chief of the U.S. Liaison Office in the People's Republic of China, effectively serving as the de facto ambassador. Biographer Jon Meacham posits that Bush's experience in China solidified his belief in the necessity of American engagement abroad for global stability, emphasizing a need for visibility without overbearing influence and strength without dominance.
Director of Central Intelligence
In January 1976, President Ford recalled Bush to Washington to assume the role of Director of Central Intelligence, placing him at the helm of the CIA. The agency's reputation had been significantly tarnished by its involvement in various covert operations during the Watergate era and the aftermath of the Vietnam War. Bush was tasked with the critical mission of restoring morale and public confidence in the CIA. During his tenure, the U.S. national security apparatus actively supported operations under Operation Condor and lent assistance to right-wing military dictatorships throughout Latin America.
Concurrently, President Ford, in his bid for re-election in the 1976 presidential election, decided to replace Nelson Rockefeller on the ticket. Ford considered Bush as his running mate but ultimately chose Bob Dole. In his capacity as DCI, Bush provided national security briefings to Jimmy Carter, both during his presidential campaign and after his election as president-elect. Bush stepped down from his CIA role on January 20, 1977, the day of Carter's inauguration.
1980 presidential election
Presidential campaign
Having concluded his tenure at the CIA following President Carter's narrow victory over President Ford in the 1976 election, Bush found himself out of public office for the first time in over a decade. He subsequently took on the role of chairman of the executive committee of the First International Bank in Houston. Additionally, he spent a year as a part-time professor of Administrative Science at Rice University's Jones School of Business. He maintained his involvement with the Council on Foreign Relations and joined the influential Trilateral Commission. In parallel, he began laying the groundwork for his presidential aspirations in the 1980 Republican Party presidential primaries. The primary contest pitted Bush against Ronald Reagan, widely considered the front-runner, alongside other notable candidates such as Senator Bob Dole, Senator Howard Baker, Texas Governor John Connally, Congressman Phil Crane, and Congressman John B. Anderson.
Bush's campaign strategy presented him as a youthful, intellectual candidate who would emulate the pragmatic conservatism of President Eisenhower. Amidst the backdrop of the Soviet–Afghan War, which signaled the end of an era of détente, and the ongoing Iran hostage crisis, which saw 52 Americans held captive, Bush's foreign policy experience was a central theme of his campaign. He strategically focused significant resources on winning the January 21 Iowa caucuses, making an extensive 31 visits to the state. His victory in Iowa, a narrow 31.5% to Reagan's 29.4%, was declared by Bush as a sign of momentum, or "the Big Mo". This win prompted Reagan to reconfigure his campaign strategy. The Reagan campaign, in turn, intensified its attacks on Bush, portraying him as an elitist out of touch with true conservative principles, partly in response to the Bush campaign's frequent questioning of Reagan's age and fitness for office.
Prior to the crucial New Hampshire primary, Bush and Reagan agreed to participate in a televised debate. This event, organized by The Nashua Telegraph but funded by the Reagan campaign, was intended to be a one-on-one confrontation. However, Reagan announced his intention to invite four other candidates, a move that Bush believed would dilute his opportunity to establish himself as the primary alternative to Reagan. Ultimately, all six candidates appeared on stage, but Bush refused to engage in the debate unless he was the sole participant besides Reagan. This stance led to the departure of the other four candidates, leaving Bush and Reagan to debate. While the encounter continued, Bush's refusal to debate anyone other than Reagan significantly damaged his prospects in New Hampshire, where he suffered a decisive defeat, securing only 23 percent of the vote. Despite this setback, Bush managed to revitalize his campaign with a victory in Massachusetts, but subsequently lost several more primaries. As Reagan solidified his lead in delegate count, Bush persisted in his campaign, though the other contenders had withdrawn. Bush famously criticized Reagan's economic proposals, influenced by supply-side economics, as "voodoo economics," expressing concerns that substantial tax cuts would inevitably lead to deficits and inflation.
Vice presidential campaign
After Reagan secured a majority of the delegates in late May, Bush reluctantly withdrew from the presidential race. At the 1980 Republican National Convention, Reagan made a last-minute decision to select Bush as his vice presidential running mate, following the collapse of negotiations for a Reagan–Ford ticket. Despite past resentments stemming from the primary campaign and opposition from some conservative leaders, Reagan ultimately viewed Bush's appeal to moderate Republicans as a strategic advantage. Bush, whose political career seemed uncertain after the primaries, readily accepted the nomination and actively campaigned for the Reagan–Bush ticket. The 1980 general election contest between Reagan and incumbent President Carter was heavily influenced by domestic concerns and the protracted Iran hostage crisis, with Reagan focusing the debate on Carter's handling of the economy. Although the race was initially considered close, Reagan ultimately persuaded a significant majority of undecided voters. Reagan secured victory with 50.7 percent of the popular vote and a commanding 489 out of 538 electoral votes, while Carter garnered 41 percent of the popular vote, and independent candidate John Anderson received 6.6 percent.
Vice presidency (1981–1989)
During his tenure as vice president, Bush largely maintained a low profile, adhering to a principle of deference to President Reagan and avoiding any actions that could be perceived as undermining the president's authority. This approach fostered trust and eased any lingering tensions from their prior rivalry. Bush also cultivated positive relationships with Reagan's staff, notably his close friend James Baker, who served as Reagan's initial Chief of Staff. Bush's understanding of the vice presidency was informed by the experiences of his predecessors, particularly Walter Mondale, who maintained a strong working relationship with President Carter through careful navigation of staff and cabinet dynamics, and Nelson Rockefeller, whose vice presidency under Ford was marked by some friction with White House staff. The Bushes were frequent attendees at public and ceremonial events, including numerous state funerals, which became a recurring subject of public commentary and humor. As president of the Senate, Bush also actively engaged with members of Congress, keeping the president informed of developments on Capitol Hill.
First term
On March 30, 1981, while Bush was in Texas, President Reagan was wounded in an assassination attempt by John Hinckley Jr.. Bush immediately returned to Washington, D.C. Upon his arrival, aides advised him to proceed directly to the White House via helicopter to project an image of governmental continuity. Bush declined this suggestion, concerned that such a dramatic display might imply an attempt to usurp Reagan's authority. During Reagan's brief period of incapacitation, Bush presided over cabinet meetings, met with congressional and foreign dignitaries, and briefed the press. Crucially, he refrained from invoking the Twenty-fifth Amendment to formally assume presidential powers. Bush's handling of the crisis garnered Reagan's approval, and the president soon recovered and resumed his duties. Following this event, the two men established a regular schedule of Thursday lunches in the Oval Office.
Reagan entrusted Bush with chairing two significant task forces: one focused on deregulation and another on combating international drug smuggling. Both initiatives addressed issues highly valued by conservatives, and Bush, generally perceived as a moderate, actively engaged with this segment of the Republican Party through his work on these task forces. The deregulation task force undertook a comprehensive review of numerous federal regulations, making specific recommendations for amendments aimed at reducing the scope of federal government involvement. The Reagan administration's deregulation efforts had a substantial impact across various sectors, including broadcasting, finance, and resource extraction, leading to the elimination of numerous government positions. Bush also assumed oversight of the administration's national security crisis management apparatus, a responsibility traditionally held by the National Security Advisor. In 1983, Bush embarked on a tour of Western Europe as part of the Reagan administration's successful campaign to persuade skeptical NATO allies to support the deployment of Pershing II missiles.
President Reagan's approval ratings experienced a decline after his first year in office but rebounded as the U.S. economy began to recover from recession in 1983. In the 1984 presidential election, former Vice President Walter Mondale secured the Democratic Party's nomination. Facing a deficit in the polls, Mondale selected Congresswoman Geraldine Ferraro as his running mate, hoping to galvanize support for his campaign. This choice made Ferraro the first woman to be nominated for vice president by a major party in U.S. history. Ferraro and Bush engaged in a single televised vice presidential debate. Throughout the 1984 election cycle, public opinion polls consistently indicated a lead for Reagan, and Mondale was unable to significantly alter the race's trajectory. Ultimately, Reagan secured re-election by a wide margin, winning 49 out of 50 states and capturing 59% of the popular vote to Mondale's 41%.
Second term
Mikhail Gorbachev ascended to power in the Soviet Union in 1985, initiating a period of significant reform. Gorbachev introduced policies of "glasnost" (openness) and "perestroika" (restructuring) to address pressing economic and political challenges. At the Washington Summit, Gorbachev and Reagan signed the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty, committing both nations to the complete elimination of their respective short- and medium-range missile arsenals. This treaty ushered in a new phase of trade, openness, and cooperation between the two global powers. While President Reagan and Secretary of State George Shultz led these negotiations, Bush participated in numerous meetings. Bush expressed his intention to continue fostering improved relations if he succeeded Reagan, even if he did not fully align with all of Reagan's policies. On July 13, 1985, Bush became the first vice president to serve as acting president when Reagan underwent surgery for the removal of polyps from his colon; Bush fulfilled this role for approximately eight hours.
The Reagan administration faced a significant scandal in 1986 with the revelation of secret weapon sales to Iran during the Iran–Iraq War. The proceeds from these sales were allegedly used to fund the Contra rebels in their conflict against the leftist Sandinista government in Nicaragua. This occurred despite congressional prohibitions on using appropriated funds to aid the Contras. Bush stated that he was "out of the loop" regarding the diversion of funds. Biographer Jon Meacham notes the lack of conclusive evidence proving Bush's awareness of the diversion, but criticizes Bush's "out of the loop" assertion, suggesting the record indicates Bush was aware of the arms-for-hostages dealings. The Iran–Contra scandal severely damaged the Reagan presidency, raising questions about Reagan's competence. Congressional investigations, including the Tower Commission and a special prosecutor appointed by federal judges, examined the scandal. Although Bush was never formally charged, the Iran–Contra affair remained a political liability.
On July 3, 1988, the guided missile cruiser USS Vincennes inadvertently shot down Iran Air Flight 655, resulting in the deaths of 290 passengers. Bush, then vice president, defended the U.S. action at the United Nations, characterizing it as an incident occurring within a wartime context and asserting the crew's actions were appropriate given the circumstances.
1988 presidential election
Bush commenced planning for a presidential campaign shortly after the 1984 election and officially entered the 1988 Republican Party presidential primaries in October 1987. His campaign team included Reagan aide Lee Atwater, his son George W. Bush, and media consultant Roger Ailes. Despite adopting a more conservative stance during his vice presidency, including endorsing a Human Life Amendment and retracting earlier criticisms of Reagan's economic policies, Bush still faced opposition from within the Republican conservative base. His primary rivals for the nomination included Senate Minority Leader Bob Dole, Representative Jack Kemp, and televangelist Pat Robertson. While President Reagan did not issue a public endorsement, he privately expressed his support for Bush.
Although considered the early front-runner for the nomination, Bush finished third in the Iowa caucus, behind Dole and Robertson. Mirroring Reagan's 1980 strategy, Bush reorganized his campaign staff and concentrated his efforts on the New Hampshire primary. With assistance from Governor John H. Sununu and a highly effective campaign that attacked Dole for prior tax increases, Bush overcame an initial polling deficit to win New Hampshire with 39 percent of the vote. Following his victories in South Carolina and 16 out of 17 states on Super Tuesday, his primary competitors withdrew from the race.
Bush delivered a well-received speech at the Republican convention, addressing criticism about his oratorical style compared to Reagan. This speech, often referred to as the "thousand points of light" speech, articulated Bush's vision for America, emphasizing his support for the Pledge of Allegiance, prayer in schools, capital punishment, and gun rights. Crucially, Bush made a firm pledge not to raise taxes, famously stating, "Congress will push me to raise taxes, and I'll say no, and they'll push, and I'll say no, and they'll push again. And all I can say to them is: read my lips. No new taxes." He selected Senator Dan Quayle of Indiana, a relatively unknown figure, as his running mate. While Quayle had a modest legislative record, his appeal to conservatives and the campaign's hope that his youth would resonate with younger voters were key factors in the selection.
President Reagan greets President-elect Bush at the White House; November 9, 1988.
Meanwhile, the Democratic Party nominated Governor Michael Dukakis, who was credited with revitalizing the Massachusetts economy. Dukakis, leading Bush in early general election polls, conducted a low-risk, seemingly uninspired campaign. The Bush campaign launched a vigorous attack against Dukakis, portraying him as an unpatriotic liberal extremist. A key element of this strategy was the exploitation of the Willie Horton case, involving a convicted felon from Massachusetts who committed rape while on a prison furlough—a program supported by Dukakis during his governorship. The Bush campaign accused Dukakis of presiding over a "revolving door" policy that enabled dangerous criminals to leave prison. Dukakis further damaged his public image with a widely ridiculed appearance in an M1 Abrams tank and a lackluster performance in the second presidential debate. Bush also criticized Dukakis's opposition to a mandatory Pledge of Allegiance in schools. The 1988 election is widely regarded as having featured a high degree of negative campaigning, although political scientist John Geer has argued that the proportion of negative ads was comparable to previous presidential elections.
Bush decisively defeated Dukakis in the Electoral College by a margin of 426 to 111, securing 53.4% of the national popular vote. He performed strongly across all major regions of the country, particularly in the South. Bush became the fourth sitting vice president to be elected president and the first since Martin Van Buren in 1836. He was also the first individual to succeed a president of his own party through election since Herbert Hoover in 1929. In the concurrent congressional elections, Democrats maintained control of both the House and the Senate.
Presidency (1989–1993)
Bush took the oath of office administered by Chief Justice William Rehnquist at the Capitol on January 20, 1989. In his inaugural address, he articulated a vision of a new era of hope and progress, stating:
I come before you and assume the Presidency at a moment rich with promise. We live in a peaceful, prosperous time, but we can make it better. For a new breeze is blowing, and a world refreshed by freedom seems reborn; for in man's heart, if not in fact, the day of the dictator is over. The totalitarian era is passing, its old ideas blown away like leaves from an ancient, lifeless tree. A new breeze is blowing, and a nation refreshed by freedom stands ready to push on. There is new ground to be broken, and new action to be taken.
Key appointments in Bush's administration included James Baker as Secretary of State and Dick Cheney as Secretary of Defense, who would later serve as Vice President under Bush's son, George W. Bush. Jack Kemp was appointed Secretary of Housing and Urban Development, and Elizabeth Dole, wife of Bob Dole and former Secretary of Transportation, became Secretary of Labor. Bush retained several Reagan administration officials, including Secretary of the Treasury Nicholas F. Brady, Attorney General Dick Thornburgh, and Secretary of Education Lauro Cavazos. New Hampshire Governor John Sununu, a staunch supporter during the 1988 campaign, served as Chief of Staff. Brent Scowcroft was appointed National Security Advisor, a position he had previously held under President Ford.
Foreign affairs
End of the Cold War
In the initial year of his presidency, Bush adopted a more cautious approach to détente with the Soviet Union. The administration was divided on its assessment of Gorbachev; some officials viewed him as a democratic reformer, while others suspected his reforms were merely tactical. The year 1989 witnessed the collapse of communist regimes across Eastern Europe, with Gorbachev declining to intervene militarily, effectively abandoning the Brezhnev Doctrine. While the U.S. was not directly involved in these events, the Bush administration avoided overt triumphalism to foster continued democratic reforms.
Bush and Gorbachev convened at the Malta Summit in December 1989. Bush emerged from the meeting with a belief in Gorbachev's willingness to negotiate in good faith, and for the remainder of his term, he sought to maintain cooperative relations, viewing Gorbachev as pivotal to global peace. A primary topic of discussion at Malta was the impending reunification of Germany. While France and Britain expressed reservations, Bush aligned with German Chancellor Helmut Kohl in advocating for reunification. Bush believed a unified Germany would serve U.S. interests. Following extensive negotiations, Gorbachev consented to Germany's integration into NATO, and Germany was officially reunified in October 1990, with Germany providing substantial financial aid to Moscow.
Bush and Mikhail Gorbachev at the Helsinki Summit in 1990.
Gorbachev faced internal challenges in suppressing nationalist movements within the Soviet Union. The crisis in Lithuania presented Bush with a diplomatic dilemma, as he required Gorbachev's cooperation on German reunification and was concerned about the security of Soviet nuclear arsenal in the event of dissolution. The Bush administration issued mild protests against Gorbachev's actions in Lithuania but refrained from direct intervention. Bush cautioned nascent independence movements about the potential instability accompanying secession from the Soviet Union, notably in his 1991 "Chicken Kiev speech," where he warned against "suicidal nationalism." In July 1991, Bush and Gorbachev signed the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START I), committing both nations to a 30% reduction in their strategic nuclear arsenals.
In August 1991, hard-line communists attempted a coup against Gorbachev. Although the coup quickly failed, it significantly weakened Gorbachev's authority and the central Soviet government. Gorbachev resigned as General Secretary of the Communist Party later that month, and Russian President Boris Yeltsin ordered the seizure of Soviet assets. Gorbachev remained President of the Soviet Union until December 1991, when the Soviet Union officially dissolved. Fifteen new states emerged from the former Soviet Union, with Russia being the largest and most populous. Bush and Yeltsin met in February 1992, declaring a new era of "friendship and partnership." In January 1993, Bush and Yeltsin agreed to START II, which stipulated further reductions in nuclear arms beyond the original START treaty.
Invasion of Panama
Throughout the late 1980s, the United States provided support to Manuel Noriega, the anti-communist leader of Panama. Noriega had long-standing ties to U.S. intelligence agencies, including during Bush's tenure as Director of Central Intelligence, and was also deeply involved in drug trafficking. In May 1989, Noriega nullified the results of a democratic presidential election won by Guillermo Endara. Bush condemned the annulment and expressed concern over the status of the Panama Canal under Noriega's continued leadership. Bush deployed 2,000 U.S. soldiers to Panama, who began conducting military exercises that contravened existing treaties. Following the fatal shooting of a U.S. serviceman by Panamanian forces in December 1989, Bush ordered the United States invasion of Panama, codenamed "Operation Just Cause." This operation marked the first large-scale U.S. military action unrelated to the Cold War in over four decades. American forces swiftly secured control of the Panama Canal Zone and Panama City. Noriega surrendered on January 3, 1990, and was subsequently transferred to a U.S. prison. The operation resulted in the deaths of 23 American service members and injuries to 394 others. Noriega was convicted and imprisoned on racketeering and drug trafficking charges in April 1992. Historian Stewart Brewer argues that the invasion signified a "new era in American foreign policy," as Bush justified it not under the Monroe Doctrine or the threat of Communism, but rather based on its perceived benefit to U.S. interests.
Gulf War
Facing significant national debt and grappling with low oil prices in the aftermath of the Iran–Iraq War, Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein initiated the invasion of Kuwait, a small, oil-rich nation bordering Iraq. Following Iraq's invasion of Kuwait in August 1990, Bush imposed economic sanctions on Iraq and assembled a multi-national coalition to oppose the invasion. Some administration officials voiced concerns that inaction would embolden Hussein to attack Saudi Arabia or Israel. Robert Gates advised Bush to temper his rhetoric, but Bush maintained that his primary objective was to deter further acts of "unanswered aggression." Bush also prioritized ensuring continued access to oil, as Iraq and Kuwait collectively supplied 20% of the world's oil, with Saudi Arabia contributing an additional 26%.
At Bush's insistence, the United Nations Security Council passed a resolution in November 1990 authorizing the use of force if Iraq failed to withdraw from Kuwait by January 15, 1991. Soviet leader Gorbachev's support and China's abstention were crucial in securing the UN resolution's passage. Bush successfully garnered commitments from Great Britain, France, and other nations for military participation in the operation against Iraq, along with significant financial backing from Germany, Japan, South Korea, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates. In January 1991, Bush requested congressional approval for a joint resolution authorizing military action against Iraq. Bush believed the UN resolution provided sufficient authorization, but he sought to demonstrate national unity behind the military operation. Despite opposition from a majority of Democrats in both the House and the Senate, Congress passed the Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq Resolution of 1991.
After the January 15 deadline passed without an Iraqi withdrawal, U.S. and coalition forces launched an aerial campaign that severely damaged Iraq's infrastructure and communications, leading to the desertion of approximately 100,000 Iraqi soldiers. In retaliation, Iraq fired Scud missiles at Israel and Saudi Arabia, though most had minimal impact. On February 23, coalition forces initiated a ground offensive into Kuwait, expelling Iraqi forces by February 27. Approximately 300 American personnel and around 65 coalition soldiers lost their lives during the military operations. A ceasefire was established on March 3, and the UN passed a resolution creating a peacekeeping force in a demilitarized zone between Kuwait and Iraq. A Gallup poll conducted in March 1991 revealed Bush's approval rating at 89%, the highest ever recorded by Gallup. Following the conflict, the UN maintained economic sanctions against Iraq, and the United Nations Special Commission was tasked with ensuring Iraq did not revive its weapons of mass destruction program.
NAFTA
In 1987, the U.S. and Canada finalized a free trade agreement that substantially reduced tariffs between the two nations. President Reagan envisioned this as a preliminary step toward a broader trade pact encompassing the United States, Canada, and Mexico. The Bush administration, in collaboration with Canadian Prime Minister Brian Mulroney, spearheaded negotiations for the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) with Mexico. Beyond tariff reductions, the agreement also addressed intellectual property rights, including patents, copyrights, and trademarks. In 1991, Bush sought fast track authority, empowering him to submit international trade agreements to Congress without the possibility of amendments. Despite opposition from key congressional figures, including House Majority Leader Dick Gephardt, both houses approved the fast track authority. NAFTA was signed in December 1992, shortly after Bush's electoral defeat, and President Clinton secured its ratification in 1993. NAFTA generated considerable debate regarding its impact on wages, employment, and overall economic growth. In 2020, it was superseded by the United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement (USMCA).
Domestic affairs
Economy and fiscal issues
The U.S. economy, which had generally shown robust performance since recovering from the recession of late 1982, experienced a downturn into a moderate recession in 1990. The unemployment rate increased from 5.9% in 1989 to a peak of 7.8% by mid-1991. Concurrently, substantial federal deficits, largely accumulated during the Reagan administration, rose from 220 billion in 1990, representing a threefold increase since 1980. As public concern shifted towards domestic economic issues, Bush's perceived success in foreign policy began to wane in importance for many voters. Bush's paramount domestic objective was to eliminate federal budget deficits, which he viewed as detrimental to the nation's long-term economic health and global standing. However, his opposition to significant defense spending cuts and his pledge to avoid tax increases presented considerable obstacles to achieving fiscal balance.
Bush and congressional leaders agreed to maintain the existing budget for fiscal year 1990, which commenced in October 1989. Nevertheless, both parties recognized the necessity of spending reductions or new revenue measures for the subsequent fiscal year to circumvent the stringent automatic spending cuts mandated by the Gramm–Rudman–Hollings Balanced Budget Act of 1987. Furthermore, Bush and other leaders sought deficit reduction as Federal Reserve Chair Alan Greenspan had indicated he would not lower interest rates to stimulate economic growth unless the federal budget deficit was addressed. In a statement released in late June 1990, Bush signaled his openness to a deficit reduction package that included spending cuts, economic growth incentives, budget process reforms, and tax increases. This announcement was met with strong criticism from fiscal conservatives within the Republican Party, who viewed it as a betrayal of his campaign pledge.
In September 1990, Bush and congressional Democrats announced a compromise that involved reducing funding for mandatory and discretionary programs and increasing revenue, partly through a higher gasoline tax. The agreement also incorporated a "pay as you go" provision requiring new programs to be funded concurrently with their implementation. House Minority Whip Newt Gingrich led the conservative opposition to the bill, vehemently opposing any form of tax increase. Some liberals also expressed dissatisfaction with the proposed spending cuts. In October, the House rejected the deal, leading to a brief government shutdown. Lacking robust Republican support, Bush agreed to a revised compromise that was more favorable to the Democrats. The Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1990 (OBRA-90), enacted on October 27, 1990, reduced the proposed gasoline tax increase in favor of higher income taxes for top earners. While it included domestic spending cuts, they were less severe than initially proposed. Bush's decision to sign the bill alienated some conservatives and negatively impacted his public standing, but it also contributed to the budget surpluses experienced in the late 1990s.
Discrimination
The disabled community had not received explicit legal protections under the landmark Civil Rights Act of 1964, leaving many individuals vulnerable to discrimination and segregation. By the time Bush assumed office, these issues were prevalent. In 1988, Lowell P. Weicker Jr. and Tony Coelho introduced the Americans with Disabilities Act, which aimed to prohibit employment discrimination against qualified individuals with disabilities. Although the bill passed the Senate, it did not advance through the House and was reintroduced in 1989. While some conservatives expressed concerns about the bill's economic implications and potential burden on businesses, Bush strongly supported it, partly influenced by his son Neil's struggles with dyslexia. Following the bill's passage by both houses of Congress, Bush signed the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 into law in July 1990. This legislation mandated that employers and public accommodations provide "reasonable accommodations" for individuals with disabilities, with an exemption for undue hardship.
Senator Ted Kennedy subsequently spearheaded congressional approval of a separate civil rights bill designed to facilitate litigation in employment discrimination cases. Bush vetoed this bill, asserting it would lead to racial quotas in hiring. In November 1991, Bush signed the Civil Rights Act of 1991, which closely mirrored the provisions of the bill he had previously vetoed.
In August 1990, Bush signed the Ryan White CARE Act, the largest federal program dedicated to supporting individuals living with HIV/AIDS. Throughout his presidency, the AIDS epidemic escalated significantly in the U.S. and globally. Bush faced criticism from AIDS advocacy groups for not prioritizing HIV/AIDS research and funding. In a notable act of protest in 1992, the activist group ACT UP scattered the ashes of deceased HIV/AIDS patients on the White House lawn during a viewing of the AIDS Quilt, expressing frustration with the administration's perceived lack of urgency. By that time, HIV had become the leading cause of death in the U.S. for men aged 25–44.
Environment
In June 1989, the Bush administration proposed legislation to amend the Clean Air Act. Working collaboratively with Senate Majority Leader George J. Mitchell, the administration secured passage of the amendments, overcoming opposition from business-aligned members of Congress concerned about the impact of stricter regulations. The legislation aimed to reduce acid rain and smog by mandating decreased emissions of pollutants such as sulfur dioxide, marking the first significant update to the Clean Air Act since 1977. Bush also signed the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 in response to the environmental disaster caused by the Exxon Valdez oil spill. However, the League of Conservation Voters expressed criticism regarding some of Bush's other environmental policies, including his opposition to enhanced automobile fuel efficiency standards.
Points of Light
Bush dedicated considerable attention to fostering voluntary service as a means to address pressing social challenges in America. He frequently invoked the theme of "a thousand points of light" to articulate the potential of civic engagement in community problem-solving. In his 1989 inaugural address, he declared, "I have spoken of a thousand points of light, of all the community organizations that are spread like stars throughout the Nation, doing good." During his presidency, Bush instituted the Daily Point of Light Award, recognizing numerous volunteers, a tradition continued by subsequent presidents. In 1990, the Points of Light Foundation was established as a nonprofit organization in Washington to promote this spirit of volunteerism. In 2007, the Points of Light Foundation merged with the Hands On Network to create a new entity, [Points of Light].
Judicial appointments
Bush appointed two justices to the Supreme Court of the United States. In 1990, he nominated David Souter, a relatively unknown state appellate judge, to succeed the influential liberal justice William J. Brennan Jr.. Souter's confirmation was smooth, and he served until 2009, though he ultimately aligned with the court's liberal wing, a development that disappointed Bush. In 1991, Bush nominated conservative federal judge Clarence Thomas to replace the long-serving liberal stalwart Thurgood Marshall. Thomas, previously the head of the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC), faced significant opposition in the Senate, particularly from pro-choice groups and the NAACP. His nomination was further complicated by accusations of sexual harassment from Anita Hill, a former colleague at the EEOC. Thomas's nomination was narrowly confirmed by a vote of 52–48, with 43 Republicans and 9 Democrats voting in favor, and 46 Democrats and 2 Republicans voting against. Thomas subsequently became recognized as one of the most conservative justices of his era.
Other issues
Bush's educational agenda primarily focused on providing federal support for various innovative initiatives, including open enrollment policies, incentive-based pay for exemplary teachers, and recognition programs for schools demonstrating improvement with underprivileged students. Although Bush did not secure passage of a major educational reform package during his presidency, his proposals influenced subsequent reform efforts, such as Goals 2000 and the No Child Left Behind Act. Bush signed the Immigration Act of 1990, which led to a 40% increase in legal immigration to the United States. The act significantly expanded the number of visas available to immigrants based on their job skills. In response to the savings and loan crisis, Bush proposed a $50 billion rescue package for the industry and advocated for the establishment of the Office of Thrift Supervision to regulate it. Congress enacted the Financial Institutions Reform, Recovery, and Enforcement Act of 1989, which incorporated most of Bush's proposals.
Public image
Bush was widely perceived as a "pragmatic caretaker" president, lacking a cohesive and compelling long-term vision. A notable sound bite from Bush, referring to the challenge of defining overarching purpose as "the vision thing," became a widely used term to describe political figures perceived as lacking a clear direction. His success in garnering broad international support for the Gulf War and its successful conclusion were viewed as significant diplomatic and military achievements, earning bipartisan acclaim. However, his decision to conclude the military engagement without removing Saddam Hussein left a degree of ambiguity, and attention soon reverted to domestic economic concerns. A report by The New York Times that mistakenly depicted Bush as surprised by a supermarket barcode reader exacerbated perceptions that he was "out of touch."
Bush enjoyed considerable popularity for much of his presidency. Following the conclusion of the Gulf War in February 1991, his approval rating reached a high of 89%. However, this rating gradually declined throughout the remainder of the year, falling below 50% by January 1992, according to a Gallup poll. This sharp decrease in favorability was largely attributed to the early 1990s recession, which transformed his image from a "conquering hero" to a "politician befuddled by economic matters." At a more elite level, numerous commentators and political analysts expressed concern over the state of American politics in 1991–1992, citing widespread voter anger and often blaming the perceived poor quality of national election campaigns.
1992 presidential campaign
Bush announced his bid for re-election in early 1992. Buoyed by the coalition victory in the Persian Gulf War and high approval ratings, his re-election initially appeared probable. Consequently, many prominent Democrats, including Mario Cuomo, Dick Gephardt, and Al Gore, opted not to seek their party's presidential nomination. However, Bush's decision to raise taxes had alienated a significant portion of the conservative base, who felt he had deviated from the conservative principles espoused by Ronald Reagan. He faced a challenge from conservative political commentator Pat Buchanan in the 1992 Republican primaries. Bush successfully fended off Buchanan's challenge and secured his party's nomination at the 1992 Republican National Convention. The convention's platform adopted a strongly socially conservative stance, significantly influenced by the Christian right.
Bush was defeated in the 1992 presidential election by Bill Clinton.
Meanwhile, the Democratic Party nominated Governor Bill Clinton of Arkansas. A moderate affiliated with the Democratic Leadership Council (DLC), Clinton advocated for welfare reform, deficit reduction, and tax cuts for the middle class. The 1992 race took an unexpected turn in early 1992 when Texas billionaire H. Ross Perot launched a third-party campaign, arguing that neither major party was capable of eliminating the deficit and improving governmental efficiency. Perot's message resonated with a broad spectrum of voters disillusioned with the perceived fiscal irresponsibility of both parties. He also criticized NAFTA, predicting significant job losses as a result. National polls taken in mid-1992 showed Perot leading, but Clinton experienced a surge in support through effective campaigning and the selection of Senator Al Gore, a popular and relatively young Southern politician, as his running mate.
Clinton emerged victorious, securing 43% of the popular vote and 370 electoral votes, while Bush garnered 37.5% of the popular vote and 168 electoral votes. Perot achieved 19% of the popular vote, one of the highest totals for a third-party candidate in U.S. history, drawing support roughly equally from both major candidates, according to exit polls. Clinton performed well in the Northeast, Midwest, and West Coast, and mounted the most successful Democratic campaign in the South since 1976. Several factors contributed to Bush's defeat. The ailing economy, exacerbated by the recession, was likely the primary factor, with approximately seven out of ten voters describing the economy as "not so good" or "poor" on election day. On election eve, the unemployment rate stood at 7.8%, the highest since 1984. The president's standing was also undermined by his alienation of many conservative Republicans. Bush attributed his loss partly to Perot's candidacy, although exit poll data suggested Perot's support was drawn evenly from both Clinton and Bush.
Despite his defeat, Bush left office with a 56% job approval rating in January 1993. In his final days, Bush issued a series of pardons to six former senior government officials implicated in the Iran-Contra scandal, most notably former Secretary of Defense Caspar Weinberger. These pardons, granted in December 1992, effectively concluded the Iran-Contra affair.
Political scientist Seymour Martin Lipset identified several unique characteristics of the 1992 election, including voters' heightened negative perception of economic conditions, the impact of a strong third-party candidate, and a liberal backlash against twelve years of Republican presidential leadership. However, Lipset concluded that Clinton's ability to unify the Democratic Party and appeal to diverse voter groups was the decisive factor.
Post-presidency (1993–2018)
Appearances
After leaving office, Bush and his wife established a retirement residence in the West Oaks, Houston community. He maintained a presidential office in the Park Laureate Building on Memorial Drive in Houston. His post-presidency also involved spending significant time at his Kennebunkport vacation home, taking annual cruises in Greece, engaging in fishing trips in Florida, and attending gatherings at the Bohemian Club in Northern California. He declined to serve on corporate boards but delivered numerous paid speeches and served as an advisor to The Carlyle Group, a private equity firm. While he did not publish a comprehensive memoir, he co-authored A World Transformed with Brent Scowcroft in 1998, a work focusing on foreign policy. Portions of his personal correspondence and diaries were later published as The China Diary of George H. W. Bush and All the Best, George Bush.
During a 1993 visit to Kuwait, Bush was targeted in an assassination plot orchestrated by the Iraqi Intelligence Service. In response, President Clinton ordered the launch of 23 cruise missiles targeting Iraqi Intelligence Service headquarters in Baghdad. Bush did not publicly comment on the assassination attempt or the subsequent missile strike, but he did speak privately with Clinton shortly before the retaliatory action.
In the 1994 gubernatorial elections, both of his sons, George W. and Jeb, ran for governor of Texas and Florida, respectively. He advised them to forge their own paths, encouraging them to express any disagreements with his own views, stating, "[a]t some point both of you may want to say 'Well, I don't agree with my Dad on that point' or 'Frankly I think Dad was wrong on that.' Do it. Chart your own course, not just on the issues but on defining yourselves." George W. won his race against Ann Richards, while Jeb was defeated by Lawton Chiles. Following the election results, the elder Bush expressed pride in both sons' efforts. Jeb Bush was subsequently elected Governor of Florida in 1998, coinciding with his brother George W.'s re-election as Governor of Texas. This marked the second time in U.S. history that two brothers served concurrently as governors, the first instance being Nelson Rockefeller and Winthrop Rockefeller, governors of New York and Arkansas respectively, from 1967 to 1971.
George and Barbara Bush, 2001.
Bush endorsed his son's candidacy in the 2000 presidential election but did not actively campaign or deliver a speech at the 2000 Republican National Convention. George W. Bush defeated Al Gore in the 2000 election and was re-elected in 2004. This achievement made George H. W. Bush and his son the second father-son presidential pair, following John Adams and John Quincy Adams. Previously known simply as "George Bush" or "President Bush," the elder Bush became more commonly referred to as "George H. W. Bush," "Bush Senior," "Bush 41," or "Bush the Elder" to distinguish him from his son. While Bush offered advice to his son on certain personnel selections, including approving Dick Cheney as running mate and retaining George Tenet as CIA Director, he was not consulted on all appointments, such as that of Donald Rumsfeld as Secretary of Defense. Although he generally avoided offering unsolicited policy advice, Bush and his son did discuss certain matters, particularly concerning national security.
In his retirement, Bush utilized his public platform to support various charitable causes. Despite earlier political differences with Bill Clinton, the two former presidents developed a close friendship. They appeared together in televised appeals for victims of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami and Hurricane Katrina. However, in an interview with Jon Meacham, Bush expressed criticism of Donald Rumsfeld, Dick Cheney, and even his son George W. Bush regarding their foreign policy decisions in the wake of the September 11 attacks.
Final years
Bush endorsed Republican John McCain in the 2008 presidential election and Republican Mitt Romney in the 2012 presidential election, both of whom were defeated by Democrat Barack Obama. In 2011, Obama awarded Bush the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the nation's highest civilian honor.
Bush supported his son Jeb's bid for the Republican presidential nomination in the 2016 Republican primaries. However, Jeb Bush's campaign struggled, and he withdrew from the race during the primaries. Neither George H. W. nor George W. Bush endorsed the eventual Republican nominee, Donald Trump. All three Bushes became frequent critics of Trump's policies and rhetoric, while Trump frequently criticized George W. Bush's presidency. George H. W. Bush later revealed he voted for the Democratic nominee, Hillary Clinton, in the general election. In January 2017, Bush informed President-elect Donald Trump via letter that he would be unable to attend Trump's inauguration on January 20 due to his poor health, extending his best wishes.
In August 2017, following the violence at the Unite the Right rally in Charlottesville, Virginia, both Presidents Bush issued a joint statement condemning racial bigotry, anti-Semitism, and hatred in all forms, emphasizing the fundamental truth of equality and unalienable rights.
On April 17, 2018, Barbara Bush passed away at the age of 92 at her home in Houston, Texas. Her funeral was held at St. Martin's Episcopal Church in Houston four days later. Former presidents Barack Obama, George W. Bush, Bill Clinton, and their respective First Ladies, along with Laura Bush, attended the funeral and posed together for a photograph symbolizing unity.
On November 1, 2018, Bush made his final public appearance when he voted early in the midterm elections.
Death and funeral
After a prolonged battle with vascular Parkinson's disease, Bush died at his home in Houston on November 30, 2018, at the age of 94. At the time of his death, he was the longest-lived U.S. president, a record surpassed by Jimmy Carter on March 22, 2019. He was also the third-oldest vice president. Bush lay in state in the Rotunda of the U.S. Capitol from December 3 to December 5, becoming the 12th U.S. president to receive this honor. On December 5, his casket was transported to Washington National Cathedral for a state funeral. Following the funeral, Bush's body was conveyed to the George H.W. Bush Presidential Library in College Station, Texas, where he was interred next to his wife Barbara and daughter Robin. At the funeral, his son, former President George W. Bush, eulogized his father, stating, "He looked for the good in each person, and he usually found it."
Personal life
In May 1991, The New York Times reported that Bush had developed Graves' disease, a non-contagious thyroid condition that also affected his wife, Barbara. Bush underwent two hip replacement surgeries, in 2000 and 2007. Subsequently, he began experiencing leg weakness, attributed to vascular parkinsonism, a form of Parkinson's disease. His mobility progressively declined, initially requiring a walking stick before he transitioned to using a wheelchair from 2011 onwards.
Bush was a lifelong member of the Episcopal Church and attended St. Martin's Episcopal Church in Houston. During his presidency, he regularly attended services at St. John's Episcopal Church in Washington D.C. He cited several life events as deepening his faith, including his escape from Japanese forces in 1944 and the death of his three-year-old daughter Robin in 1953. His faith informed his "thousand points of light" speech, his support for prayer in schools, and his alignment with the pro-life movement after becoming vice president. Following his death, it was revealed that Bush had secretly provided financial support for the education and sustenance of a schoolboy in the Philippines under the alias "George Walker" through the charity Compassion International.
Legacy
Historical reputation
Polls conducted among historians and political scientists have consistently ranked Bush among the upper half of U.S. presidents. A 2018 survey by the American Political Science Association's Presidents and Executive Politics section placed Bush at 17th out of 44 presidents. A 2017 C-SPAN poll of historians similarly ranked him 20th out of 43. Richard Rose characterized Bush as a "guardian" president, and many other scholars have described him as a passive leader who was "largely content with things as they were." Professor Steven Knott noted that "generally the Bush presidency is viewed as successful in foreign affairs but a disappointment in domestic affairs."
Biographer Jon Meacham observed that, after leaving office, many Americans viewed Bush as "a gracious and underappreciated man who had many virtues but who had failed to project enough of a distinctive identity and vision to overcome the economic challenges of 1991–92 and to win a second term." Bush himself reflected that his legacy was "lost between the glory of Reagan ... and the trials and tribulations of my sons." In the 2010s, Bush was remembered fondly for his willingness to compromise, a trait that stood in contrast to the highly partisan political climate that followed his presidency.
In 2018, Vox highlighted Bush's "pragmatism" as a moderate Republican president who successfully engaged in bipartisan cooperation. The publication specifically cited his domestic policy achievements, including the passage of the Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1990, which raised taxes on higher earners through bipartisan agreement. Bush also played a key role in enacting the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, described by The New York Times as "the most sweeping anti-discrimination law since the Civil Rights Act of 1964." In response to the Exxon Valdez oil spill, Bush forged another bipartisan coalition to strengthen the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990. Furthermore, he championed and signed the Immigration Act of 1990, a comprehensive bipartisan immigration reform measure that facilitated legal immigration, provided temporary protected status for refugees, eliminated English proficiency testing for naturalization, and removed the exclusion of homosexuals previously classified under the "sexual deviant" category in the 1965 act. Bush articulated his perspective on immigration, stating, "Immigration is not just a link to our past but it's also a bridge to America's future."
According to USA Today, the defining aspects of Bush's presidency were his decisive victory over Iraq following the invasion of Kuwait and his leadership during the dissolution of the Soviet Union and German reunification. Historians Michael Beschloss and [Strobe Talbott] praised Bush's handling of the Soviet Union, particularly his role in encouraging Gorbachev to relinquish control over satellite states and permit German unification within NATO. Conversely, Andrew Bacevich characterized the Bush administration's approach to China after the Tiananmen Square massacre as "morally obtuse" and criticized its unreserved support for Gorbachev during the Soviet Union's disintegration. David Rothkopf argued:
In the recent history of U.S. foreign policy, there has been no president, nor any president's team, who, when confronted with profound international change and challenges, responded with such a thoughtful and well-managed foreign policy...[the Bush administration was] a bridge over one of the great fault lines of history [that] ushered in a "new world order" it described with great skill and professionalism.
However, TIME magazine criticized Bush's domestic policies, citing issues related to "drugs, homelessness, racial hostility, education gaps, [and] issues with the environment," suggesting these problems worsened in the 21st century due in part to Bush's perceived lack of leadership and ineffective handling of these matters during his presidency.
Memorials, awards, and honors
In 1990, Time magazine named him the Man of the Year. In 1997, Houston Intercontinental Airport was renamed George Bush Intercontinental Airport in his honor. In 1999, the CIA headquarters in Langley, Virginia, was dedicated as the George Bush Center for Intelligence. Bush, an avid golfer, was inducted into the World Golf Hall of Fame in 2011. The USS George H.W. Bush (CVN-77), the tenth and final Nimitz-class supercarrier of the United States Navy, bears his name. Bush is also commemorated on a postage stamp issued by the United States Postal Service in 2019. In December 2020, the United States Mint honored him with a presidential dollar coin.
The George H.W. Bush Presidential Library and Museum, the tenth U.S. presidential library, was completed in 1997. It houses the presidential and vice presidential papers of Bush, as well as the vice presidential papers of Dan Quayle. The library is situated on a 90-acre (36 ha) site on the west campus of Texas A&M University in College Station, Texas. Texas A&M University also hosts the Bush School of Government and Public Service, a graduate public policy school. In 2012, Phillips Academy awarded Bush its Alumni Award of Distinction.
There. All facts preserved, structure maintained, and, dare I say, a touch of necessary illumination. Don't expect this level of detail for every request.