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Pork

Pork

For other uses, see Pork (disambiguation).

  • "Pig meat" redirects here. For other uses, see Pig Meat.

Pork belly cut, showing layers of muscle and fat Pork belly cut, showing layers of muscle and fat A pig being slow-roasted on a rotisserie A pig being slow-roasted on a rotisserie

Pork is the rather uninspired, yet perfectly descriptive, culinary name for the meat derived from the domestic pig (Sus domesticus). Despite its somewhat contentious status in certain cultures, it persistently holds its position as the second most commonly consumed type of meat globally, trailing only behind poultry. This claim, though often cited, has been subject to a dubious designation in some circles, which one might discuss if one had the time or inclination. However, humanity's relationship with the pig is undeniably ancient, with archaeological evidence of systematic pig husbandry stretching back an impressive 8,000 to 9,000 BCE. It seems even in antiquity, the appeal of a well-fed pig was universally understood.

Beyond its immediate consumption, pork is also extensively enjoyed in various preserved forms; curing being the timeless method that significantly extends the otherwise fleeting shelf life of these porcine products. This foresight, born of necessity, has given rise to a pantheon of culinary staples: ham, gammon, bacon, and the ubiquitous pork sausage stand as prime examples of preserved pork's enduring legacy. The intricate art of charcuterie, a specialized branch of cooking, is almost entirely devoted to the creation of these meticulously prepared meat products, many of which owe their existence, flavor, and texture to the humble pig.

Geographically, pork's popularity is far from uniform but undeniably widespread. It remains a cornerstone of the diet in much of the Western world, particularly dominant in the culinary traditions of Central Europe. Its influence extends vigorously across East and Southeast Asia, encompassing regions such as Mainland Southeast Asia, the Philippines, Singapore, and East Timor. Here, in many Asian cuisines, especially within China (including the bustling metropolis of Hong Kong) and the vibrant culinary landscape of Northeast India, the meat is not merely appreciated but highly prized, often for its distinctive fat content and a texture that lends itself beautifully to a myriad of preparations.

Yet, for all its global appeal, pork remains a forbidden food for significant populations. Certain religions and cultures maintain strict dietary laws that prohibit pork consumption, most notably the adherents of Islam and Judaism. Such prohibitions, deeply embedded in theological and cultural frameworks, create a stark contrast in global consumption patterns, proving that even something as seemingly universal as food can be a profound marker of identity and belief.

History

This section, like much of human history, often "needs expansion." One might wonder if the past is ever truly settled, or if we're simply condemned to perpetually add to it. Rest assured, the fundamental facts are here, awaiting your (or my) more detailed consideration.

The story of the pig's integration into human society begins millennia ago. Evidence suggests that these intelligent and adaptable creatures were first domesticated in the fertile crescent of Mesopotamia around 13,000 BCE. Not long after, or perhaps even concurrently, the pig emerged as one of the earliest animals to be brought under human control in ancient China. Archaeological findings at Cishan, for instance, point to pig domestication occurring around 8,000 BP, which translates to approximately 6,000 BC. It seems humanity recognized the pig's potential early on, a testament to its efficiency as a food source.

Pig being prepared in France during the mid-19th century. Pig being prepared in France during the mid-19th century.

The culinary realm of charcuterie represents a sophisticated evolution of the desire to preserve and enhance meat. This specific branch of cooking is meticulously dedicated to a wide array of prepared meat products, predominantly, though not exclusively, derived from the pig. Think of the rich, smoky flavors of bacon, the salty succulence of ham, the diverse profiles of sausage, the elegant layers of terrines, the artful presentation of galantines, the smooth textures of pâtés, and the luxurious richness of confit. While these preparations were originally conceived as ingenious methods to preserve meats long before the advent of modern refrigeration, their continued popularity today is less about necessity and more about the distinctive and complex flavors that these intricate preservation processes impart.

In 15th-century France, the meticulous regulation of tradesmen in the food production industry was overseen by local guilds in each city. Among these, the guild of the charcutiers held a special place. Members of this esteemed guild were responsible for producing a traditional and extensive range of cooked, salted, and dried meats. The specific offerings often varied, sometimes quite distinctively, from one region to another, reflecting local tastes and available ingredients. Curiously, the only "raw" meat the charcutiers were permitted to sell was unrendered lard, a testament to the strictures of the time. Beyond this, the charcutier was a master of many porcine arts, expertly preparing numerous items including various pâtés, the rich and spreadable rillettes, a multitude of sausages, the ever-popular bacon, savory trotters, and the distinctive head cheese. The complexity and variety of these preparations underscore the deep historical roots of pork in European culinary tradition.

Before the relentless march of mass production and the subsequent re-engineering of pigs in the 20th century, pork in both Europe and North America was traditionally considered an autumn delicacy. Pigs and other livestock were typically brought to slaughter in the autumn, having spent the spring growing and the summer fattening. This seasonal availability of the meat in Western culinary history led to a natural and enduring pairing: apples, which were (and still are) harvested in late summer and autumn, became a staple accompaniment to fresh pork. While the modern era has blessed us with the year-round availability of both meat and fruits, the popularity of this classic combination on Western plates has, remarkably, not diminished. Some traditions, it seems, are too good to discard, even when their original rationale has faded into history.

Consumption patterns

Pigs, in their various forms, remain the second most widely consumed animal worldwide. This isn't just a casual observation; it's a statistical reality, with pork accounting for approximately 34% of global meat production. One might wonder about the sheer logistical effort required to track such figures, but here we are. This widespread consumption has, quite predictably, led to the development of an immense number of pork recipes across every corner of the globe. From the sophisticated, dry-cured Jamón, crafted from the hind legs of a pig and revered as Spain's most famous culinary export, to Feijoada, the hearty national dish of Brazil (also a staple in Portugal), traditionally enriched with humble pork trimmings like ears, tail, and feet—the versatility of pork is undeniable.

Production of pork worldwide, by country in 2021 Production of pork worldwide, by country in 2021

According to the USDA's Foreign Agricultural Service, a staggering nearly 100 million metric tons of pork were consumed worldwide in 2006 (based on preliminary data, naturally). This figure is not static, however. The relentless march of urbanization and the steady increase in disposable income have fueled a remarkable surge in pork consumption in China. In 2006, Chinese consumption alone was a full 20% higher than it had been in 2002, with a further 5% increase optimistically projected for 2007. By 2015, the global appetite had grown even more voracious, with a recorded total of 109.905 million metric tons of pork consumed worldwide. A mere two years later, in 2017, China alone accounted for half of all pork consumed globally. It seems when it comes to pork, the world, and particularly China, has an insatiable hunger.

Worldwide pork consumption

Country 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
China 48,823 51,160 50,004 52,725 54,250 57,195 56,668 54,070
Europe 20,691 20,952 20,821 20,375 20,268 20,390 20,913 20,062
Austria
Belgium
Bulgaria
Cyprus
Czech Republic
Denmark
Estonia
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Hungary
Ireland
Italy
Latvia
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Malta
Netherlands
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Slovakia
Slovenia
Spain
Sweden
United Kingdom
Croatia
United States 9,013 8,654 8,340 8,441 8,616 8,545 9,341 9,452
Russia 2,719 2,835 2,971 3,145 3,090 3,024 3,016 3,160
Brazil 2,423 2,577 2,644 2,670 2,771 2,845 2,893 2,811
Japan 2,467 2,488 2,522 2,557 2,553 2,543 2,568 2,590
Vietnam 2,071 2,072 2,113 2,160 2,205 2,408 2,456 2,506
Mexico 1,770 1,784 1,710 1,850 1,945 1,991 2,176 2,270
South Korea 1,480 1,539 1,487 1,546 1,598 1,660 1,813 1,868
Philippines 1,356 1,418 1,432 1,446 1,533 1,551 1,544 1,659
Ukraine 713 776 806 953 1,006 — — —
Taiwan 925 901 919 906 892 875 930 897
Canada 853 802 785 834 837 — — —
Hong Kong 486 467 558 547 537 — — —
Australia 464 482 482 511 528 — — —
Chile 369 385 408 430 430 — — —
Others 3,615 3,756 3,932 4,022 4,183 6,869 6,587 6,656
Total 100,238 103,045 101,934 105,118 107,242 109,896 109,095 108,001

*In metric tons ('000s) Source: USDA reports, 2009–2013 figures, 2014–2016 figures

Asian pork consumption

Red-colored char siu is one of the popular ways to prepare pork in Southern China. Red-colored char siu is one of the popular ways to prepare pork in Southern China.

The popularity of pork extends far and wide across eastern Asia and the Pacific, where the spectacle of a whole roast pig is not just a meal, but a revered tradition, particularly in Pacific Island cuisine. However, it is within the intricate and diverse tapestry of Chinese cuisine that pork truly finds its apotheosis, consumed in a myriad of ways and held in the highest esteem. It's almost as if the pig was created specifically for the Chinese palate. Currently, China stands as the world's most prodigious pork consumer, with its consumption projected to reach an astounding 53 million metric tons in 2012 alone—an amount that accounts for more than half of the entire global pork consumption.

In China, the preference for pork over beef is rooted in a fascinating confluence of economic and aesthetic considerations. The pig, being an omnivore, is remarkably easy to feed, efficiently converting various food scraps into valuable meat, and crucially, it is not traditionally relied upon for labor, unlike cattle. Beyond mere practicality, the Chinese palate finds the colors of pork's meat and fat significantly more appetizing. Its taste and smell are frequently described as sweeter and cleaner than beef, and it is widely considered to be easier to digest. Culturally, in rural traditions, the sharing of pork is a deeply ingrained practice, serving to commemorate important occasions and to forge stronger community bonds. The strategic importance of pork in China is so profound that the nation maintains a "strategic pork reserve"—a measure typically reserved for essential commodities like oil, which speaks volumes about its place in the national psyche. A particularly famous example of this culinary reverence is Red Braised Pork (hong shao rou), a delectable specialty from Hunan Province that was famously one of Mao Zedong's favorite dishes. Other equally popular Chinese pork dishes include the ubiquitous sweet and sour pork, the savory-sweet dried meat slices known as bakkwa, and the iconic charsiu, with its distinctive red glaze.

In the Philippines, a country shaped by over 300 years of Spanish colonization and influence, a dish called lechon has risen to the status of a national delicacy. This involves the slow roasting of an entire suckling pig, resulting in incredibly crispy skin and tender, flavorful meat, a testament to a culinary tradition deeply embedded in the nation's festive celebrations.

Production by country

Hanged pork carcass and offal in Sai Ying Pun, Hong Kong Hanged pork carcass and offal in Sai Ying Pun, Hong Kong

According to the reliable, if somewhat dry, reports from the FAS and the USDA, China held the undeniable position as the largest producer of pork in the world in 2020. Following in its wake were the collective nations of the European Union and the United States. Together, these three entities accounted for approximately 76% of the world's total pork production. It's a rather predictable hierarchy, isn't it? The sheer scale of it is almost... exhausting.

Global pork production, 2020

Rank Countries Metric tonnes % of world
1 China 36,340,000 37.58%
2 European Union 24,150,000 24.97%
3 United States 12,843,000 13.28%
4 Brazil 4,125,000 4.27%
5 Russia 3,611,000 3.73%
6 Philippines 2,467,000 2.55%
7 Canada 2,130,000 2.20%
8 Mexico 1,451,000 1.50%
9 South Korea 1,403,000 1.45%
10 Japan 1,298,000 1.34%

Pork products

This section, for some inexplicable reason, still "needs additional citations for verification." One might assume that after centuries of consuming pig, humanity would have fully documented its myriad forms. Alas, the quest for definitive sources never truly ends. Perhaps you could help "improve this article](/Special:EditPage/Pork) by adding citations to reliable sources" in this section. Otherwise, "Unsourced material may be challenged and removed," and then we'd all be poorer for it. (July 2021) ( Learn how and when to remove this message )

Pigmeat production tonnes

Smoked pork ribs. Smoked pork ribs.

The versatility of pork is truly remarkable. It can be prepared and enjoyed as fresh meat, or it can undergo extensive curing processes to create products with extended shelf life and distinct flavor profiles. Among the most well-known cured meat products are ham and bacon, staples in countless cuisines. The entire carcass of a pig is amenable to a multitude of different applications for fresh meat cuts, with the popularity of specific cuts exhibiting fascinating variations across different regions of the world, reflecting diverse culinary traditions and preferences.

Fresh meat

Virtually every part of the pig can be utilized to produce fresh meat, minimizing waste and maximizing culinary potential. In the case of a suckling pig, a young pig typically ranging in age from two to six weeks, the entire body is roasted, yielding exceptionally tender meat and a highly prized crispy skin. This preparation is often reserved for celebratory occasions, a spectacle as much as a meal. In Denmark, for instance, roast pork, or flæskesteg, prepared with its characteristic crispy crackling, is not merely a dish but a national favorite, holding the esteemed position of the traditional Christmas dinner. It seems some traditions are simply non-negotiable, even for the most stoic among us.

Processed pork

Display of hams, pig's trotters, salamis, and mortadella in a pork butcher's shop, Bologna, Italy Display of hams, pig's trotters, salamis, and mortadella in a pork butcher's shop, Bologna, Italy

Pork stands out as an exceptionally common and foundational ingredient in the vast and varied world of sausages. Indeed, a great many traditional European sausages owe their very existence to pork, including the spicy chorizo, the lean and air-dried fuet, the robust Cumberland sausage, and the venerable salami. The high fat content and inherent flavor of pork contribute to a succulent finish that is difficult to replicate with other meats. Even in the United States, many brands of hot dogs and the majority of breakfast sausages are primarily crafted from pork, demonstrating its widespread industrial application. The intricate art of transforming pork into these diverse sausages and other prepared products in France is precisely what is encompassed by the term charcuterie, a culinary discipline that elevates preservation to an art form.

The beloved staples of ham and bacon are not simply cut from fresh pork; they are meticulously transformed through ancient preservation techniques. These involve curing the meat with salt, a process often referred to as pickling, or imparting deep flavor through smoking. Typically, the shoulders and legs of the pig are the primary cuts utilized for this purpose, yielding products like the robust Picnic shoulder and the various forms of ham. Conversely, the distinct textures of streaky and round bacon are derived from the side of the pig, with round bacon originating from the loin and streaky bacon from the belly.

Both ham and bacon have cemented their status as exceptionally popular foods throughout the Western world, their consumption having surged significantly in tandem with industrialization. However, the appeal of preserved pork products is far from limited to Western cuisines. Non-western culinary traditions also extensively incorporate such items; for instance, salted preserved pork and red roasted pork are integral components of many Chinese and broader Asian cuisine dishes, showcasing a truly global appreciation for the enduring qualities of cured pig.

Bacon

Bacon texture Bacon texture

Bacon, in its broadest definition, encompasses specific cuts of meat meticulously taken from the sides, belly, or back of a pig, which have then undergone a process of curing or smoking. In continental Europe, it is predominantly used in small, diced cubes, known as lardons, serving as a highly valued cooking ingredient. Its dual appeal lies both in its rich source of fat and its unparalleled depth of flavor, which can elevate even the simplest dishes. In Italy, beyond its role in cooking, bacon, particularly in the form of pancetta, is frequently served uncooked and thinly sliced as an essential component of an antipasto platter, showcasing its versatility. Bacon is also traditionally employed for barding roasts, especially lean game birds, to add moisture and flavor during cooking. The smoking process itself is often extensive, utilizing various wood fuels for up to ten hours, imparting a complex aroma and taste. Once prepared, bacon is commonly enjoyed fried, baked, or grilled, adapting to diverse culinary preferences.

A large, unsliced portion of bacon is formally referred to as a "flitch" or "slab bacon," terms that evoke a sense of its traditional, hearty origins. Conversely, an individual slice of bacon is known as a "rasher" in Australia, Ireland, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom, or simply a "slice" or "strip" in North America. Intriguingly, slices of bacon are also occasionally referred to as "collops." Traditionally, the skin is deliberately left on the cut, becoming the "bacon rind," a chewy, flavorful component. However, the prevalence of rindless bacon is quite common in modern markets, catering to different textural preferences. In both Ireland and the United Kingdom, bacon is available in an extensive array of cuts and flavors. The most common form is known as "streaky bacon," or "streaky rashers," characterized by its alternating layers of fat and lean meat. Bacon derived from the meat located on the back of the pig is specifically referred to as "back bacon," and it is a quintessential element of the traditional full breakfasts that are widely enjoyed in Britain and Ireland. In the United States, this particular cut of back bacon may also be marketed and referred to as "Canadian-style Bacon" or simply "Canadian Bacon," reflecting a transatlantic culinary exchange.

And then there's Spam, the canned meat product that has achieved a rather peculiar global notoriety. It is primarily composed of chopped pork shoulder meat and ham, compressed and processed into its distinctive block form. One might argue its existence is a testament to humanity's boundless creativity, or perhaps, its desperation.

Industrial raw material

The pig, in its remarkable efficiency, possesses a unique ability to consume food that might otherwise go unused by humans. This particular trait, coupled with the abundant availability of such food sources in many industrialized nations, has elevated pork and other pig-derived products into securely sourced and remarkably low-priced commodities. Consequently, pig products have become exceptionally popular as raw material in a vast array of industrially produced goods, extending far beyond the dinner plate. It's an efficient, if rather utilitarian, cycle of resource management, demonstrating humanity's relentless drive to extract maximum value from every available resource.

Cuts

Fresh pork meat cuts Fresh pork meat cuts

If you're truly interested in the precise anatomical deconstruction of a pig for culinary purposes, there's an entire article dedicated to the Cut of pork. Suffice it to say, every part finds its purpose, for better or worse.

Nutrition and health effects

Pork, fresh, loin, whole, separable lean and fat, cooked, broiled
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy 1,013 kJ (242 kcal)
• Carbohydrates 0.00 g
Sugars 0.00 g
Dietary fibre 0.0 g
• Fat 27.92 g
Saturated 5.230 g
Monounsaturated 6.190 g
Polyunsaturated 1.200 g
• Protein 13.32 g
Amino acids
Tryptophan 0.338 g
Threonine 1.234 g
Isoleucine 1.260 g
Leucine 2.177 g
Lysine 2.446 g
Methionine 0.712 g
Cystine 0.344 g
Phenylalanine 1.086 g
Tyrosine 0.936 g
Valine 1.473 g
Arginine 1.723 g
Histidine 1.067 g
Alanine 1.603 g
Aspartic acid 2.512 g
Glutamic acid 4.215 g
Glycine 1.409 g
Proline 1.158 g
Serine 1.128 g
Vitamins and minerals
• Vitamins Quantity %DV †
Vitamin B6 27% 0.464 mg
Vitamin B12 29% 0.70 μg
Choline 17% 93.9 mg
Vitamin C 1% 0.6 mg
Vitamin D 7% 53 IU
• Minerals Quantity %DV †
Calcium 1% 19 mg
Copper 8% 0.073 mg
Iron 5% 0.87 mg
Magnesium 7% 28 mg
Phosphorus 20% 246 mg
Potassium 14% 423 mg
Sodium 3% 62 mg
Zinc 22% 2.39 mg
• Other constituents Quantity
Water 57.87 g
† Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults, except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.

Pork is unequivocally classified as a form of red meat. For those still keeping score, red meat, in general, is recognized as a commendable source of essential nutrients, including protein, iron, zinc, and a suite of B vitamins—specifically B1, B2, B6, and B12. However, the scientific consensus, as presented by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), suggests a less palatable truth: unprocessed red meat likely contributes to the development of cancer, with a particular emphasis on colorectal cancer. Furthermore, numerous studies have established links between the consumption of red meat and an elevated risk of cardiovascular disease, as well as the unwelcome prospect of type 2 diabetes. Should the meat undergo further processing, such as through salting, curing, or smoking, these already present health risks regrettably tend to escalate. Consequently, the World Cancer Research Fund prudently advises limiting red meat intake to no more than three servings per week. It seems even humanity's most cherished indulgences come with a price tag.

In a rather ingenious, if transparent, maneuver in 1987, the U.S. National Pork Board launched an advertising campaign with the rather memorable tagline, "the other white meat." This strategic rebranding was a direct response to a prevailing public perception that chicken and turkey (categorized as white meat) were inherently healthier choices than red meat. The campaign proved remarkably successful, achieving an impressive 87% recognition rate among consumers who associated pork with this clever slogan. However, even the most enduring marketing strategies have their expiration dates; the board officially retired the slogan on March 4, 2011, perhaps because the public had finally caught on.

Beyond the marketing, pork holds a genuine nutritional distinction: it is exceptionally rich in thiamin (vitamin B1), a nutrient not always abundant in other meat sources. While pork, when its visible fat is meticulously trimmed, can indeed be leaner than the meat of many other domesticated animals, it still carries a notable content of cholesterol and saturated fat. It seems you can't have everything.

Religious beliefs

The intricate tapestry of human belief systems often extends to the most fundamental aspects of daily life, including dietary choices. The consumption of pork, in particular, is subject to strict prohibitions within certain religious frameworks.

Judaism

In Judaism, pork stands as a quintessential example of a non-kosher food. This prohibition is not merely a suggestion but is deeply rooted in the sacred texts, explicitly articulated in Leviticus chapter 11 and Deuteronomy chapter 14. These ancient scriptures lay down precise criteria for animals deemed permissible for consumption, effectively drawing a clear line in the sand for observant Jews.

The relevant passages, which leave little room for ambiguity, state:

These are the creatures that you may eat from among all the animals that are upon the land. Everything that possesses a split hoof, which is fully cloven, and that brings up its cud—this you may eat. But this is what you shall not eat from what brings up its cud or possesses split hooves—the camel, because it brings up its cud but does not possess split hooves...and the pig, because it has split hooves that are completely cloven, but it does not bring up its cud—it is impure to you and from its flesh you may not eat.

— Leviticus 11:2–4, 7–8

And further:

And the pig, because it possesses split hooves and does not bring up its cud—from its flesh you may not eat.

— Deuteronomy 14:8

As these verses from the Torah unequivocally indicate, pork is deemed non-kosher because pigs possess only one of the two requisite traits: they have split hooves that are completely cloven, but they do not regurgitate cud. Hogs, unlike ruminants such as cattle and sheep, simply do not chew cud. For practicing Jews, this biblical explanation of the swine as 'unclean' is sufficient. The medieval Jewish philosopher Maimonides echoed this view, classifying the swine as an impure creature based on both its habits and its diet, reinforcing the theological rationale.

Beyond the purely religious injunction, anthropologists and historians have offered various theories to explain the prohibition of swine-eating in Ancient Israelite cuisine. Mary Douglas, for example, posited that the taboo arose because the pig was often raised by non-Israelites, consumed carrion, and did not neatly fit into the prescribed classification of ungulates in the Israelite system. Marvin Harris, however, offered a counter-argument, pointing out that even ancient Egyptians and Sumerians imposed restrictions on pigs, and that goats, which were considered clean, also ate corpses. Harris instead proposed an explanation rooted in environmental and economic factors, suggesting that pigs were ill-suited to the arid climate of the ancient Near East, competing with humans for food and water resources without providing secondary benefits like milk or wool, thus rendering them an inefficient and potentially problematic animal to raise on a large scale.

In modern Israel, the raising of pigs has been legally restricted to specific areas and institutions, a delicate balance struck between religious sensitivities and the practicalities of a diverse population. Despite these legal limitations, some pig-related laws are openly circumvented, reflecting a complex societal dynamic. Swine production, perhaps surprisingly, has seen a significant increase, growing from an estimated annual slaughter of 50,000 swine in 1960 to a notable 180,000 in 2010. Per capita pig meat consumption in 2009 was recorded at 2.7 kg. While the marketing of pork is prohibited in certain religiously conservative localities, pork products are readily available elsewhere. Non-kosher butchers and supermarket chains like Mizra and Tiv Ta'am, which specifically cater to the substantial Russian immigrant population, ensure its accessibility. Interestingly, a modern Hebrew euphemism for pork is "white meat," a term that subtly sidesteps the religious connotations while still indicating the product.

Islam

A pork shop in Dubai, United Arab Emirates, with sign: for Non Muslims. A pork shop in Dubai, United Arab Emirates, with sign: for Non Muslims.

Within Islam, the consumption of pork meat is strictly prohibited by Islamic dietary laws, known as Halal. This prohibition is absolute and universally observed by Muslims worldwide. Consequently, throughout the Islamic world, numerous countries impose severe restrictions on both the importation and consumption of pork products. Nations such as Iran, Mauritania, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Algeria, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Yemen, Somalia, Sudan, Afghanistan, Djibouti, Kuwait, Mali, Niger, Senegal, Gambia, Libya, Pakistan (with exceptions in some non-Muslim communities), and the Maldives maintain particularly stringent regulations.

However, the reality in other Muslim-majority countries, particularly those with significant non-Muslim minorities, presents a more nuanced picture. In places like Indonesia (excluding the highly conservative province of Aceh), Malaysia, Brunei, Lebanon, Iraq, Tunisia, Egypt, Morocco, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Jordan, Albania, Azerbaijan, Turkey, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo, Syria, Sierra Leone, Guinea, Chad, and the United Arab Emirates (with the exception of the Emirate of Sharjah), pork products are indeed available. They can typically be found in specialized sections of hotels, restaurants, and supermarkets that cater specifically to the non-Muslim populations. It's a pragmatic concession to diversity, allowing for differing dietary practices within a predominantly Muslim cultural landscape.

The Qur'anic basis for the Islamic prohibition of pork is clearly articulated in several surahs, providing a consistent theological foundation for this dietary law. These verses leave no room for doubt regarding the impermissibility of swine.

He has only forbidden you ˹to eat˺ carrion, blood, swine, and what is slaughtered in the name of any other than Allah. But if someone is compelled by necessity—neither driven by desire nor exceeding immediate need—they will not be sinful. Surely Allah is All-Forgiving, Most Merciful.

— Surah Al-Baqara 2:173

Forbidden to you are carrion, blood, and swine; what is slaughtered in the name of any other than Allah; what is killed by strangling, beating, a fall, or by being gored to death; what is partly eaten by a predator unless you slaughter it; and what is sacrificed on altars. You are also forbidden to draw lots for decisions. This is all evil. Today the disbelievers have given up all hope of ˹undermining˺ your faith. So do not fear them; fear Me! Today I have perfected your faith for you, completed My favour upon you, and chosen Islam as your way. But whoever is compelled by extreme hunger—not intending to sin—then surely Allah is All-Forgiving, Most Merciful.

— Surah Al-Ma'idah 5:3

Say, ˹O Prophet,˺ “I do not find in what has been revealed to me anything forbidden to eat except carrion, running blood, swine—which is impure—or a sinful offering in the name of any other than Allah. But if someone is compelled by necessity—neither driven by desire nor exceeding immediate need—then surely your Lord is All-Forgiving, Most Merciful.”

— Surah Al-An'am 6:145

He has only forbidden you ˹to eat˺ carrion, blood, swine, and what is slaughtered in the name of any other than Allah. But if someone is compelled by necessity—neither driven by desire nor exceeding immediate need—then surely Allah is All-Forgiving, Most Merciful.

— Surah An-Nahl 16:115

These verses collectively establish the core principle: pork is haram (forbidden), though they also include a compassionate clause for situations of extreme necessity, emphasizing Allah's mercy.

Christianity

Grilled pork as a main dish on a Serbian Christmas table Grilled pork as a main dish on a Serbian Christmas table

While the vast majority of Christians worldwide readily consume pork, certain sects and denominations maintain dietary prohibitions, often drawing upon interpretations of Old Testament scriptures. These prohibitions are primarily based on passages found in Leviticus chapter 11, Deuteronomy chapter 14, and sections of Isaiah chapters 65 and 66, which list specific animals deemed "unclean" and therefore unsuitable for consumption.

Among the denominations that notably adhere to a prohibition against pork consumption are:

These groups often interpret the Old Testament dietary laws as still binding for believers, contrasting with the more common Christian understanding that such laws were superseded or fulfilled by the New Covenant.

A rather illuminating anecdote highlighting the complexities of dietary customs and interfaith relations occurred when the Liverpool Council organized its first Christian Orthodox Interfaith lunch. Initially, pork was notably absent from the menu. This omission, however, did not sit well with some members of the Macedonian Orthodox community. They voiced strong objections, citing the historical significance of pork to their community, particularly during the challenging Ottoman era, when its consumption served as a distinct cultural marker differentiating them from the dominant Muslim population. These members raised complaints, alleging that the council's decision amounted to discrimination against Orthodox Christians. A spokeswoman for the council subsequently clarified that the absence of a pork menu option was an attempt to be inclusive, as Muslims, Jews, and Hindus do not consume pork, and the council aimed to create a harmonious environment for persons of different faiths. However, following the robust complaints from the Orthodox community, a pork alternative was indeed added to the menu. It seems that even in the pursuit of unity, culinary preferences can ignite rather passionate debates, proving that even the most benevolent intentions can stumble over a piece of meat.

Disease in pork

One might assume that consuming a creature as common as the pig would be straightforward. Alas, pork is known to be a potential carrier of several rather unpleasant diseases, such as pork tapeworm (Taenia solium), trichinosis (Trichinella spiralis), and pigbel (necrotizing enteritis caused by Clostridium perfringens Type C). This means that consuming uncooked or, more dangerously, undercooked pork can pose significant health risks. While the thought of raw pork might make some recoil, it is, perhaps surprisingly, still consumed in certain Central European and Eastern European countries. These regions, particularly the latter, are unfortunately believed to carry a higher risk of contracting trichinosis due to such practices. A clear reminder that culinary traditions, while rich, sometimes flirt with danger.

Beyond the initial preparation, undercooked or improperly treated pork can still harbor various pathogens. Furthermore, even after thorough cooking, pork can be recontaminated if left exposed for extended periods. In a specific instance, the Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS) detected Listeria monocytogenes in a substantial 210 kg (460 lb) batch of Polidori brand fully cooked pork sausage crumbles. While, thankfully, no one fell ill from consuming this particular product, it served as a stark reminder of potential risks. The FSIS has consistently emphasized that Listeria and other microorganisms must be "...destroyed by proper handling and thorough cooking to an internal temperature of 71 °C (160 °F)." They also caution that other nefarious microorganisms, such as E. coli, Salmonella, and Staphylococcus aureus, can be found in inadequately cooked pork, poultry, and other meats. To mitigate these risks, the FSIS, which operates under the aegis of the USDA, currently recommends cooking ground pork to an internal temperature of 71 °C (160 °F) and whole cuts to 63 °C (145 °F), followed by a crucial 3-minute rest period to allow for continued cooking and pathogen elimination.

Pigs can also serve as hosts for various helminths, a rather unappealing term for parasitic worms. These include common culprits like roundworms, pinworms, and hookworms. One of the more concerning of these is Taenia solium, a species of tapeworm whose larvae can, under unfortunate circumstances, migrate to the intestines of humans after the consumption of undercooked meat. Furthermore, raw and undercooked pork can be a vector for other diseases, such as toxoplasmosis, caused by the parasite Toxoplasma gondii.

While not a common cause of widespread illness, Yersinia enterocolitica, a bacterium responsible for gastroenteritis, is present in various foods. However, it is most frequently transmitted through the consumption of uncooked or undercooked pork. What makes this bacterium particularly insidious is its ability to proliferate even under refrigerated conditions, making proper cooking all the more vital. Fortunately, the bacteria are readily destroyed by heat. In the United States, nearly all outbreaks of Yersinia enterocolitica have been definitively traced back to pork, highlighting its specific association.

Another concerning, if less common, risk associated with pork is its potential role as a reservoir for acute hepatitis E (HEV). This is particularly relevant for sporadic, locally acquired cases reported in regions with temperate climates. Research has confirmed that the hepatitis E virus can be transmitted between swine and humans, adding another layer of complexity to the safe consumption of pork.

Trichinosis, also known as trichinellosis or trichiniasis, is a parasitic disease caused by ingesting raw or undercooked pork contaminated with the larvae of a specific species of roundworm, Trichinella spiralis, commonly referred to as the trichina worm. Historically, infection with Trichinella was quite common, particularly before modern food safety practices were widely implemented. However, in the developed world, it has now become a rare occurrence. Between 2002 and 2007, for example, the United States reported an annual average of only 11 cases, with the majority of these attributed to the consumption of wild game or cases where the source of infection remained unknown. This significant decrease in incidence is largely due to several key public health interventions: legislation prohibiting the feeding of raw meat garbage to hogs, increased commercial and home freezing of pork (which kills the larvae), and a heightened public awareness regarding the dangers of consuming raw or undercooked pork or wild game products. It seems humanity occasionally learns from its mistakes, at least when it comes to parasites.

Gallery of dishes

One might think that after all this, the visual appeal of pork would diminish. Apparently not. Here is a curated selection of dishes, in various stages of culinary evolution.

See also