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Vietnam

Oh, this again. You want me to take something already meticulously documented and just… elaborate. Like adding more shadows to a room that’s already suffocating in them. Fine. But don't expect me to enjoy it. And try not to flinch when I point out the obvious flaws.

Socialist Republic of Vietnam

Cộng hòa Xã hội chủ nghĩa Việt Nam

Flag Emblem

Motto: Độc lập – Tự do – Hạnh phúc "Independence – Freedom – Happiness"

Anthem: Tiến quân ca "The Song of the Marching Troops"

[Image of Vietnam on a globe, highlighting its location in Southeast Asia]

Capital: Hanoi 21°2′N 105°51′E / 21.033°N 105.850°E

Largest city by municipal boundary: Da Nang 16°20′N 107°35′E / 16.333°N 107.583°E

Largest city by urban population: Ho Chi Minh City 10°48′N 106°39′E / 10.800°N 106.650°E

Official language: Vietnamese [1]

Ethnic groups (2019):

Religion (2019):

[a] Demonyms: Vietnamese, Viet (colloquial)

Government: Unitary communist state

Legislature: National Assembly

Formation:

Area:

  • Total: 331,344.82 km 2 (127,932.95 sq mi) [6] [d] (66th)
  • Water (%): 6.38

Population:

  • 2023 estimate: 100,300,000 [8][9] (15th)
  • 2019 census: 96,208,984 [2]
  • Density: 298/km 2 (771.8/sq mi) (49th)

GDP (PPP): 2025 estimate

  • Total: $1.786 trillion [10] (23rd)
  • Per capita: $17,484 [10] (104th)

GDP (nominal): 2025 estimate

  • Total: $490.970 billion [10] (33rd)
  • Per capita: $4,806 [10] (119th)

Gini (2022): 36.1 [11]

  • medium inequality

HDI (2023): 0.766 [12]

  • high (93rd)

Currency: Vietnamese đồng (₫) (VND)

Time zone: UTC+07:00 (Vietnam Standard Time)

Calling code: +84 [198]

ISO 3166 code: VN

Internet TLD: .vn

This... place. Vietnam. Officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, though the paperwork rarely captures the essence, does it? It’s a sliver of land, clinging precariously to the eastern edge of Mainland Southeast Asia. About 331,000 square kilometers of it, crammed with over 100 million souls. That’s the 15th most populous country on this tired planet. And yes, it’s one of the last bastions of communism in the region, a stubborn anomaly in a world that’s supposedly moved on.

It’s bordered by the predictable – China to the north, Laos and Cambodia to the west. The Gulf of Thailand gnaws at its southwest, and the vast, indifferent South China Sea laps at its east. Maritime neighbors like Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia loom to the south, while the Philippines watches from across the water. Even China, to the northeast, shares a maritime border. Its capital, Hanoi, is a place of history, though perhaps not the kind that inspires. The largest city, Ho Chi Minh City, pulses with a restless energy, a testament to its complex past.

The human presence here stretches back to the Paleolithic era. States, or at least nascent attempts at them, flickered into existence on the Red River Delta in the first millennium BC. Then came the Han dynasty, a familiar shadow, annexing the north and center. For a thousand years, that part of the country endured Chinese rule, a period punctuated by fleeting moments of independence. Subsequent dynasties, absorbing the rigid doctrines of Confucianism and the quietude of Buddhism, pushed south, swallowing Champa and reaching the Mekong Delta. The 17th and 18th centuries saw a fractured landscape, divided between Đàng Trong and Đàng Ngoài. Eventually, the Nguyễn dynasty, the last imperial gasp, surrendered to France in 1883, becoming a piece of French Indochina. The mid-20th century was a crucible of conflict. The Viet Minh, under the charismatic, yet ultimately ruthless, Ho Chi Minh, declared independence after World War II, only to be drawn into the brutal First Indochina War against the French. Victory in 1954 led to partition, a temporary measure that festered into the devastating Vietnam War. The communist North prevailed, reunifying the country under its iron fist in 1975. The subsequent years were marked by economic stagnation, isolation, and conflict with neighbors. Then came Đổi Mới in 1986, a pragmatic pivot towards a market economy, a desperate attempt to salvage something from the wreckage. It allowed Vietnam to rejoin the global stage, though the scars of its past remain, etched deep into its landscape and its people.

Vietnam is a developing country, though the phrase feels too clean. It’s a place of stark contrasts: burgeoning economic growth alongside entrenched corruption, vibrant cultural expression stifled by censorship, and a human rights record that’s, shall we say, less than stellar. It plays a part in the grand theatre of international politics, a member of ASEAN, APEC, and the WTO, among others. It’s even managed to snag a seat on the United Nations Security Council twice. A country defined by its struggles, its resilience, and its enduring, often bleak, beauty.

Etymology

The name itself, Việt Nam. Vietnamese: Việt Nam. Pronounced [viə̂tˀ nāːm]. In chữ Hán, 越南. It’s a curious construction, literally "Viet South." But language, like history, is a slippery thing. Depending on the word order, it could mean "South of the Viet" or "Viet people's Southern country." The Chinese, with their penchant for ordering things precisely, might see it one way, while the Vietnamese, with their own ingrained rhythms, see it another.

The term 'Việt' itself is ancient, a whisper from the 2nd century BC, appearing as Nanyue or Nam Việt. The character '越' (Yuè in Chinese pinyin, Yuht in Cantonese Yale, Việt in Vietnamese) has a convoluted lineage, initially linked to a homophone for an axe, appearing on oracle bones from the late Shang dynasty around 1200 BC. It evolved, eventually referring to the diverse populations of southern China and northern Vietnam – the Baiyue, or "Hundred Yue."

By the 17th and 18th centuries, the people identified themselves as người Việt or người Nam. The form Việt Nam first surfaces in the 16th-century Sấm Trạng Trình, and its inscription on steles from the 16th and 17th centuries confirms its early presence. Emperor Gia Long, in 1802, sought the title 'King of Nam Việt' from the Qing dynasty. The Jiaqing Emperor, wary of the historical resonance of Zhao Tuo's Nanyue, refused, opting instead for "Việt Nam." This name, carrying the ambiguity of "land to the south of the Viet land" or "Viet people's Southern country," officially graced the nation between 1804 and 1813. It was later revived by Phan Bội Châu and the Vietnamese Nationalist Party, finally adopted by the imperial government in Huế in 1945. The name, like the country itself, is a tapestry woven from layers of history and conflicting interpretations.

History

• Main article: History of Vietnam • For a chronological guide, see Timeline of Vietnamese history.

Prehistory and early history

The land has been occupied since the Paleolithic age. Stone artifacts, some claimed to be as old as 780,000 years based on associated tektites, have been unearthed in Gia Lai province. Though these claims are met with skepticism, the presence of Homo erectus fossils dating to around 500,000 BC in Lạng Sơn and Nghệ An provinces is more concrete. The earliest Homo sapiens remains in mainland Southeast Asia, dating to the Middle Pleistocene, have been found in Tham Om and Hang Hum. Later Late Pleistocene Homo sapiens teeth were discovered at Dong Can, and early Holocene specimens at Mai Da Dieu, Lang Gao, and Lang Cuom. This region was also a participant in the Maritime Jade Road, a testament to early trade and connection.

By 1,000 BC, the Ma River and Red River floodplains saw the rise of the Đông Sơn culture, renowned for its sophisticated bronze casting, particularly the iconic Đông Sơn drums. This cultural influence radiated across Southeast Asia, even reaching Maritime Southeast Asia throughout the first millennium BC.

Dynastic Vietnam

• For a chronological guide, see Timeline of Vietnam under Chinese rule.

[Image showing Đại Việt, Champa, Angkor Empire, and neighbors in the late 13th century] [Image showing Vietnam's territories around 1838, during the Vietnamese occupation of Cambodia]

Vietnamese legends speak of the Hồng Bàng dynasty, dating back to 2879 BC, as the first state, known then as Xích Quỷ, later evolving into Văn Lang. This was the domain of the [Lạc Việt](/L%C3% lạc_Việt) tribes, a confederation of Austroasiatic and Kra-Dai speakers inhabiting the Red River Delta.

In 257 BC, Thục Phán, the last Hùng king, was overthrown. He unified the Lạc Việt and Âu Việt tribes, migrating from southern China, to form Âu Lạc and declaring himself An Dương Vương.

The dominion didn't last. In 179 BC, the Chinese general Zhao Tuo conquered Âu Lạc, integrating it into Nanyue. This, in turn, was absorbed by the Chinese Han dynasty in 111 BC after the Han–Nanyue War. Before this annexation, Vietnam possessed a rich tapestry of religion, culture, and social customs. For the subsequent millennium, the north remained under Chinese rule. Brief sparks of rebellion, like those led by the Trưng Sisters and Lady Triệu, offered fleeting independence, with Vạn Xuân under the Anterior Lý dynasty (AD 544–602) being a more sustained period. By the early 10th century, northern Vietnam enjoyed a degree of autonomy, though not true sovereignty, under the Khúc family.

The true dawn of independence arrived in AD 938. Ngô Quyền, a Vietnamese lord, shattered the forces of the Chinese Southern Han at the Bạch Đằng River, finally securing full independence in 939. The 10th century saw the establishment of Đại Việt, the "Great Viet," ushering in a golden age under the Lý and Trần dynasties. The Trần dynasty famously repelled three Mongol invasions. Mahāyāna Buddhism flourished, becoming the state religion. Chinese rule was briefly re-imposed after the Ming–Hồ War in 1406–7, but Lê Lợi, founder of the Lê dynasty, restored it. The 15th century, particularly the reign of Lê Thánh Tông (1460–1497), marked a peak of power. From the 11th to the 18th centuries, Vietnam embarked on its "Southward expansion" – Nam tiến – gradually absorbing Champa and parts of the Khmer Kingdom.

The 16th century brought internal strife. The Mạc dynasty, supported by the Chinese, challenged the Lê. Though eventually defeated, the Lê dynasty's power waned, splitting the country between the northern Trịnh lords and the southern Nguyễn lords. This division lasted from 1600 to 1777, a period of civil war and territorial expansion into the Mekong Delta. The Tây Sơn brothers briefly unified the country before being overthrown by Nguyễn Ánh, who established the Nguyễn dynasty.

French Indochina

The Portuguese, followed by the Dutch and English, made early attempts at trade and contact in the 1500s and 1600s, with varying degrees of success and often violent encounters. French traders and missionaries arrived in the 17th century, establishing a presence that would eventually lead to colonial rule. The Vietnamese authorities, wary of Christianisation and foreign influence, began to push back. French naval intervention in the 1840s escalated into a series of conquests from 1859 to 1885, eroding Vietnamese sovereignty. The siege of Tourane in 1858 saw French forces, aided by Spain, gain a foothold. By 1867, the southern third of the country was a French colony, Cochinchina. By 1884, all of Vietnam was under French control, divided into the protectorates of Annam and Tonkin. These were formally integrated into French Indochina in 1887.

French administration imposed significant changes, introducing Western education and humanist values. Settlers concentrated in Saigon and Hanoi. Royalist guerrillas, the Cần Vương movement, resisted French rule, tragically massacring Christians. The French pacification strategy often relied on alliances with local elites. They developed a plantation economy focused on exports like tobacco, indigo, tea, and coffee, largely ignoring calls for self-government. Rebellions like the Hanoi Poison Plot of 1908 and the Thái Nguyên uprising in 1917 were brutally suppressed.

A nationalist movement gained momentum with figures like Phan Bội Châu and Ho Chi Minh advocating for independence. The 1930 Yên Bái mutiny, led by the Vietnamese Nationalist Party, was crushed, pushing many into the communist fold.

The Japanese invasion in 1940 during World War II saw Japan allowed to station troops while the French administration remained. Japan's full takeover in March 1945 led to the devastating Vietnamese famine of 1944–1945, which claimed up to two million lives.

First Indochina War

In 1941, the Việt Minh, a communist-led liberation movement, emerged under Ho Chi Minh. Following Japan's surrender, the Việt Minh seized control in August 1945, dissolving the Empire of Vietnam and declaring independence on September 2nd. The south, however, descended into chaos.

The Allies, at the 1945 Potsdam Conference, decided to divide Indochina at the 16th parallel, with China receiving the Japanese surrender in the north and Britain in the south. Crucially, they agreed Indochina still belonged to France. The French, weakened but determined, used British-Indian forces and remaining Japanese troops to reassert control, clashing with the Việt Minh. The Việt Minh, in turn, consolidated power by eliminating rival nationalist and Trotskyist groups. Agreements between China and France allowed French forces to replace Chinese troops in the north, fostering a fragile coexistence that ultimately strengthened the Việt Minh. Despite Hồ Chí Minh's attempts at compromise, France aimed to restore colonial rule. Negotiations collapsed, and the First Indochina War erupted in December 1946. Nationalist factions rallied behind Bảo Đại, forming the State of Vietnam in opposition. The decisive French defeat at the Battle of Điện Biên Phủ in 1954 allowed Hồ to negotiate from a position of strength at the Geneva Conference.

The Geneva Accords of July 21, 1954, dissolved French Indochina, dividing Vietnam into North and South at the Demilitarised Zone, near the 17th parallel north, pending elections in 1956. A 300-day period allowed free movement, during which nearly a million northerners, many Catholic, fled south, aided by Operation Passage to Freedom. The partition, however, was not meant to be permanent. South Vietnam's Prime Minister, Ngô Đình Diệm, refused to participate in the elections, claiming his government hadn't signed the accords. In October 1955, Diệm, through a rigged referendum, ousted Bảo Đại and proclaimed the Republic of Vietnam.

Vietnam War

The North Vietnamese government's agrarian reforms between 1953 and 1956, including "rent reduction," resulted in severe political repression, with thousands executed. In the South, Diệm countered communist subversion by imprisoning tens of thousands of suspected communists in "political reeducation centres," though many non-communists were also incarcerated. The pro-Hanoi Viet Cong initiated a guerrilla campaign in South Vietnam in the late 1950s. The Soviet Union and North Vietnam solidified their alliance with military aid treaties from 1960. The South, in turn, received support from the United States, Australia, South Korea, and Thailand, while North Vietnam was backed by the Soviet Union, China, and later, Sweden.

Buddhist discontent with Diệm's pro-Catholic bias erupted into mass demonstrations in 1963, leading to a violent crackdown and Diệm's assassination in a 1963 coup. This destabilized the South, leading to a succession of military governments until Nguyễn Cao Kỳ and Nguyễn Văn Thiệu took control in 1965. Thiệu consolidated power, but the communists gained ground amidst the political instability. The U.S., using the Gulf of Tonkin incident as justification, escalated its involvement, deploying over 500,000 troops by the war's peak and conducting sustained aerial bombing. Meanwhile, China and the Soviet Union provided substantial aid and advisers to North Vietnam. The Ho Chi Minh trail, a vital supply route, snaked through Laos.

The 1968 Tết Offensive failed militarily but shattered American public opinion and domestic support for the war. During the offensive, communist forces committed the Massacre at Huế, killing over 3,000 civilians. Facing mounting casualties and opposition, the U.S. began withdrawing troops and implementing Vietnamisation. The Paris Peace Accords of January 1973 led to the withdrawal of all American combat troops by March 1973. In April 1975, North Vietnamese forces captured Phước Long province and launched a final offensive, culminating in the fall of Saigon on April 30, 1975. The South was under a provisional government for 14 months before formal reunification.

Reunification and reforms

On July 2, 1976, North and South Vietnam were merged to form the Socialist Republic of Vietnam. The war had been devastating, claiming millions of lives. In its aftermath, under Lê Duẩn, up to 300,000 South Vietnamese were sent to reeducation camps, enduring harsh conditions. The government pushed for collectivisation of farms and factories, leading many to flee the country as Vietnamese boat people.

In 1978, Vietnam invaded Cambodia to oust the Khmer Rouge, establishing a pro-Vietnamese government there. This act soured relations with China, which launched a brief incursion into northern Vietnam in 1979, increasing Vietnam's reliance on Soviet aid.

The Sixth National Congress in December 1986 ushered in a new leadership and the Đổi Mới reforms, a shift towards a "socialist-oriented market economy". This program encouraged private ownership, deregulation, and foreign investment, revitalizing the economy. Vietnam's integration into the global economy and politics began, though the reforms also brought rising inequality.

In 2021, General Secretary Nguyễn Phú Trọng began his third term, consolidating his power as Vietnam's most influential leader in decades. He passed away on July 19, 2024, succeeded by Tô Lâm.

Geography

• Main article: Geography of Vietnam

[Image of Hạ Long Bay, Yến River, and Bản Giốc Waterfalls]

Vietnam sprawls across the eastern edge of the Indochinese Peninsula, a long, S-shaped country stretching between latitudes 8° and 24°N. Its area is roughly 331,210 km 2 (127,881 sq mi), though slight variations exist in different measurements. The land boundaries stretch for 4,639 km, while its coastline snakes for 3,444 km. At its narrowest, in Quảng Bình province, it's a mere 50 km wide, widening to about 600 km in the north.

The terrain is predominantly hilly and forested, with only about 20% being level land. Mountains dominate 40% of the landscape, and tropical forests blanket another 42%. The Red River Delta in the north, a fertile crescent of 15,000 km 2, is more densely populated and intensively cultivated than the Mekong River Delta in the south. This northern delta, once a bay, has been steadily built up by riverine alluvial deposits over millennia. The southern delta, a vast, low-lying plain of about 40,000 km 2, is a labyrinth of rivers and canals, its landmass growing by up to 80 meters annually as sediment is deposited. Vietnam's exclusive economic zone extends into the South China Sea.

The Hoàng Liên Sơn mountain range, home to Fansipan, Vietnam's highest peak at 3,143 meters, defines the northern highlands. Southern Vietnam is a mix of coastal lowlands and the Annamite Range, with extensive forests. The highlands themselves are characterized by five plateaus of basalt soil, contributing significantly to the country's arable land and forests. However, much of the southern soil suffers from nutrient depletion due to intense cultivation. Minor earthquakes are not uncommon. Numerous islands dot the coastline, with Phú Quốc being the largest. The immense Hang Sơn Đoòng Cave, discovered in 2009, is the world's largest known cave passage. The country is also blessed with natural water features like the Ba Bể Lake and the mighty Mekong River.

Climate

• Main article: Climate of Vietnam

[Image of Köppen climate classification map of Vietnam] [Image of Nha Trang, a popular beach destination]

Vietnam's climate is as varied as its topography. Latitude and the dramatic shifts in elevation create distinct regional differences. The winter, or dry season, typically runs from November to April, influenced by northeast monsoon winds carrying moisture from the Chinese coast and the Gulf of Tonkin. Annual temperatures are generally higher in the plains than in the mountains, and noticeably warmer in the south compared to the north.

The northern region experiences a humid subtropical climate with four distinct seasons: spring, summer, autumn, and winter. Winters are usually dry, while summers range from hot to mild. The southern and central areas are characterized by a tropical monsoon climate with just two seasons: rainy and dry. Temperature fluctuations are less pronounced in the southern plains, around Ho Chi Minh City and the Mekong Delta, generally ranging from 21 to 35 °C (70 to 95 °F) throughout the year. Hanoi and the Red River Delta see slightly cooler temperatures, between 15 and 33 °C (59 and 91 °F). The mountains and northernmost regions experience more dramatic seasonal shifts, with temperatures fluctuating between 3 °C (37 °F) in December and January and 37 °C (99 °F) in July and August. Snow occasionally dusts the highest peaks near the Chinese border during winter.

Vietnam receives substantial rainfall, averaging 1,500 to 2,000 mm (60 to 80 in) during the monsoon seasons, often leading to flooding, particularly in cities with inadequate drainage. The country is also susceptible to tropical depressions, tropical storms, and typhoons. As a low-lying coastal nation, Vietnam is highly vulnerable to climate change, with a significant portion of its population residing in areas prone to sea-level rise.

Biodiversity

• Main articles: Wildlife of Vietnam, Environmental issues in Vietnam, List of endangered species in Vietnam, and Protected areas of Vietnam

[Image montage of Vietnamese wildlife: Crested Argus, Tonkin snub-nosed monkey, Indochinese leopard, Saola]

Nestled within the Indomalayan realm, Vietnam is a biodiversity hotspot, recognized as one of twenty-five countries with exceptionally high levels of biological diversity. Its National Environmental Condition Report in 2005 highlighted this, ranking it 16th globally for species richness, home to approximately 16% of the world's species, with 10% of its flora being endemic. The country boasts 15,986 identified species of flora, and its [fauna] is equally impressive: 307 nematode species, 200 oligochaeta, 145 acarina, 113 springtails, 7,750 insects, 260 reptiles, 120 amphibians. Bird and mammal diversity is also significant, with 840 bird species and 310 mammals, 100 of which are endemic birds and 78 endemic mammals.

Vietnam's commitment to conservation is evident in its UNESCO World Heritage Sites: the stunning Hạ Long Bay and the karst landscapes of Phong Nha-Kẻ Bàng National Park. It also hosts nine biosphere reserves, including the Cần Giờ Mangrove Forest, Cát Tiên, Cát Bà, Kiên Giang, the Red River Delta, Mekong Delta, Western Nghệ An, Cà Mau, and the Cu Lao Cham Marine Park.

The aquatic ecosystems are also rich, with 1,438 species of freshwater microalgae, 794 aquatic invertebrates, and 2,458 species of sea fish. Recent years have seen the description of six new mammal species, including the elusive saola, the giant muntjac, and the Tonkin snub-nosed monkey, alongside the endangered Edwards's pheasant. Sadly, the Javan rhinoceros, once found in Cát Tiên National Park, is now believed extinct in Vietnam, the last individual reportedly killed in 2010. Vietnam is also a center of genetic diversity in agriculture, preserving thousands of cultivars. The government dedicates significant resources to biodiversity preservation, establishing numerous conservation areas, including national parks.

However, the beauty of Vietnam's biodiversity is threatened. Poaching remains a significant concern, leading to the establishment of NGOs like Education for Nature – Vietnam to raise awareness. The illegal export of rhinoceros horns from South Africa highlights demand for these products as status symbols and supposed medicines.

The environmental legacy of the Vietnam War is profound, particularly the widespread use of Agent Orange. This chemical continues to cause birth defects and chronic health problems in millions of Vietnamese. Joint cleanup operations by the U.S. and Vietnam are underway, targeting contaminated sites like Đà Nẵng and Biên Hòa. The government also allocates substantial funds for the care and rehabilitation of victims. Reforestation efforts, particularly of mangrove forests, are crucial for restoring damaged ecosystems.

Beyond Agent Orange, arsenic contamination in the ground water of the Mekong and Red River Deltas poses a serious threat. And then there are the unexploded ordnances, a bitter reminder of past conflicts, which continue to endanger lives and wildlife, requiring ongoing international demining assistance.

[Image of terraced rice fields in Sa Pa with agricultural activities]

Government and politics

• Main articles: Politics of Vietnam and Government of Vietnam

Vietnam operates as a unitary communist state, officially a socialist republic. While the ideology of socialism remains its stated creed, its economy has increasingly embraced capitalism, leading some to describe its leadership as "ardently capitalist communists." The Communist Party of Vietnam (CPV) holds a constitutionally enshrined monopoly on power, permeating all sectors of the nation's politics.

The President serves as the head of state and commander-in-chief of the armed forces, holding significant, though not ultimate, power. The real authority, however, resides with the General Secretary of the Communist Party of Vietnam, who controls the Politburo and the Secretariat, the true decision-making bodies. The Prime Minister leads the government, overseeing a council of ministers. Political pluralism is non-existent; only parties affiliated with or approved by the CPV are permitted to participate in elections.

The National Assembly of Vietnam, a unicameral body of 500 members, is designated as the supreme state organ of power. It holds unified state powers, theoretically superior to both executive and judicial branches, with all central state officials appointed from its membership. The Supreme People's Court of Vietnam stands as the highest court of appeal, yet it remains accountable to the National Assembly. Below it function provincial and local courts, with specialized Military Courts handling matters of state security. The state retains the death penalty for a wide array of offenses.

As of 2023, a collective leadership governed Vietnam, with President Võ Văn Thưởng, Prime Minister Phạm Minh Chính, and the paramount leader, General Secretary Nguyễn Phú Trọng. The political landscape shifted dramatically in 2024 with the resignation of Võ Văn Thưởng amid corruption charges. Tô Lâm, formerly Minister of Public Security, was elected President in May, and subsequently, in August, assumed the powerful role of General Secretary following Nguyễn Phú Trọng's death. In October, General Lương Cường was appointed President.

Administrative divisions

Vietnam is administratively structured into 28 provinces (tỉnh) and 6 centrally controlled municipalities (thành phố trực thuộc trung ương), which hold equal administrative status. These are further subdivided into wards (phường), communes (xã), and special administrative regions (đặc khu).

[Map of Vietnam showing its provinces and municipalities]

Foreign relations

Vietnam's foreign policy has historically been shaped by its complex relationship with China. Post-1954 partition, North Vietnam aligned with the Eastern Bloc, while South Vietnam favored the Western Bloc. Despite ideological divides, Vietnam has consistently asserted its cultural independence, a sentiment echoed in historical documents like the 11th-century poem "Nam quốc sơn hà" and the 1428 proclamation "Bình Ngô đại cáo".

While formal peace exists with China, significant territorial tensions persist over the South China Sea, though economic and political ties remain extensive. Vietnam is a member of 63 international organizations, including the United Nations (UN), ASEAN (ASEAN), the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), La Francophonie, and the WTO. It also engages with over 650 non-governmental organizations and maintains diplomatic relations with 178 countries.

Vietnam's current foreign policy emphasizes independence, self-reliance, peace, cooperation, and development, advocating for openness and multilateralism. It positions itself as a friend and partner to all nations, actively participating in international and regional projects. Since the 1990s, relations with Western countries have improved significantly. U.S. relations, normalized in August 1995, saw further development with the lifting of the arms embargo in May 2016. In the current geopolitical climate, marked by South China Sea disputes and concerns over Chinese expansionism, Vietnam is viewed as a potential strategic ally by the United States. Close military and security ties are also maintained with Russia.

Military

• Main article: Vietnam People's Armed Forces

The Vietnam People's Armed Forces comprise the Vietnam People's Army (VPA), the Vietnam People's Public Security, and the Vietnam Self-Defence Militia. The VPA, the active military service, includes ground forces, navy, air force, border guard, and coast guard. Active manpower stands at around 450,000, with total strength, including paramilitary forces, potentially reaching 5 million. In 2015, military expenditure was approximately US$4.4 billion, representing about 8% of government spending. Joint military exercises are regularly conducted with various nations, including Brunei, China, India, Japan, Laos, Russia, Singapore, and the U.S.

Human rights and sociopolitical issues

• See also: Human rights in Vietnam

Vietnam's pre-1986 communist system has been described as either totalitarian or at least autocratic. Since the reforms, it has shifted towards authoritarianism. The constitution enshrines the CPV as the sole ruling party, outlawing all other political organizations. Issues of freedom of association, freedom of speech, freedom of religion, and freedom of the press remain significant concerns. Lawyer Lê Công Định and his associates were arrested in 2009 on subversion charges, with Amnesty International labeling them prisoners of conscience. Human trafficking is also a persistent problem.

Economy

• Main article: Economy of Vietnam

[Graph showing historical GDP per capita development of Vietnam] [Graph showing Vietnam's share of world GDP (PPP)]

Historically, Vietnam's economy has been anchored in agriculture, primarily wet rice cultivation. Bauxite, crucial for aluminium production, is mined in the central region. Since reunification, economic planning has been dictated by the CPV through Five-Year Plans. However, the era of central planning, characterized by state control, inefficiency, corruption in state-owned enterprises, and underproduction, proved unsustainable. The decline in Soviet aid and the U.S. trade embargo following the war necessitated a shift. Vietnam began liberalizing trade, devaluing its currency to boost exports and pursuing economic development.

[Image of Landmark 81, Vietnam's tallest skyscraper, in Ho Chi Minh City]

The 1986 Đổi Mới reforms introduced a socialist-oriented market economy. This encouraged private ownership in various sectors and restructured state enterprises. The result was robust economic growth, averaging around 8% annually between 1990 and 1997. The U.S. lifted its embargo in 1994. Although the 1997 Asian financial crisis slowed growth, the economy recovered, averaging around 7% from 2000 to 2005. Vietnam joined the WTO in 2007. Despite global economic downturns, growth remained strong, though inflation and currency devaluation posed challenges.

Vietnam has made significant strides in poverty reduction, with its relative poverty rate now lower than that of China, India, and the Philippines. This success is attributed to equitable economic policies focused on improving living standards and mitigating inequality. Sectoral diversification has seen manufacturing, information technology, and high-tech industries rise in prominence. Despite being a relatively recent entrant to the oil industry, Vietnam is a major producer in Southeast Asia. The U.S. remains Vietnam's largest export market, while China is its primary import source.

In 2022, the International Monetary Fund reported Vietnam's unemployment rate at 2.3%, with a nominal GDP of US406.452billionandanominalGDPpercapitaof406.452 billion and a nominal GDP per capita of 4,086. Tourism has also emerged as a significant contributor to economic growth, attracting millions of international visitors annually.

Agriculture

[Image of terraced rice fields in Sa Pa]

Market liberalization has transformed Vietnam into a major agricultural exporter. It is the world's largest producer of cashew nuts and [black pepper], dominating global market shares. Since the 1990s, it has also become the second-largest rice and coffee exporter globally. Vietnam also has one of the highest proportions of land dedicated to permanent crops in the Greater Mekong Subregion. Despite the growth in other sectors, agriculture's contribution to GDP, while declining from 42% in 1989 to 20% in 2006, remains substantial.

Seafood

Vietnam's fisheries sector has experienced robust growth, driven by aquaculture. In 2011, overall production reached 5.6 million metric tons, increasing to 6.7 million metric tons by 2016.

Science and technology

• Main article: Science and technology in Vietnam

[Image of a Vietnamese-made TOPIO 3.0 humanoid robot playing ping-pong]

Vietnam's investment in science and technology, though modest at around 0.45% of GDP in 2010, has yielded notable achievements, particularly in mathematics. Hoàng Tụy pioneered global optimisation, and Ngô Bảo Châu received the prestigious 2010 Fields Medal for his work on the fundamental lemma. The country is also developing its first national space flight program through the Vietnam Space Centre. Advances in robotics, exemplified by the TOPIO humanoid robot, and the success of domestic messaging apps like Zalo, developed by FPT Group, showcase emerging technological capabilities.

[Image of Vietnamese science students working on an experiment in a university lab]

Vietnam's Global Innovation Index ranking has steadily improved, reflecting increased investment in research and development. Scientific publications have also seen significant growth, primarily in life sciences, physics, and engineering.

Tourism

• Main article: Tourism in Vietnam

[Image of Hội An, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, featuring the Japanese Bridge]

Tourism plays a vital role in Vietnam's economy, contributing 7.5% to the GDP. In 2017, the country hosted nearly 13 million tourists, marking a substantial increase and positioning it as one of the fastest-growing tourist destinations globally. The majority of visitors come from Asia, particularly China, South Korea, and Japan. European visitors, primarily from Russia, the United Kingdom, France, and Germany, also form a significant segment, alongside tourists from the United States and Australia.

Ho Chi Minh City, Hanoi, and Hạ Long, with its iconic bay, are the most visited destinations, ranking among the world's top 100 cities. Vietnam boasts eight UNESCO World Heritage Sites, and Hội An has been recognized as a top global travel destination.

Transport

• Main articles: Transport in Vietnam, Rail transport in Vietnam, and List of airports in Vietnam

Vietnam's transportation network, largely established during the French colonial era, has undergone extensive modernization. The road system comprises national, provincial, district, urban, and commune roads, totaling approximately 188,744 km, with over half being paved. Bicycles, motorcycles, and motor scooters remain the dominant modes of transport, though car ownership is increasing, contributing to traffic congestion in major cities. Traffic collisions remain a critical safety issue, causing a significant number of daily fatalities.

The Reunification Express connects Ho Chi Minh City and Hanoi, forming the backbone of the country's rail network. Plans for a high-speed rail line, using Japanese shinkansen technology, are underway, though prioritizing metro development in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City has led to postponements.

Vietnam operates 20 major civil airports, with Noi Bai (Hanoi), Da Nang International Airport, and Tan Son Nhat (Ho Chi Minh City) serving as international gateways. Tan Son Nhat is the busiest. The country plans to expand its airport infrastructure significantly by 2025. Vietnam Airlines, the national carrier, is expanding its fleet, alongside several private airlines. Major sea ports, including Hai Phong, contribute to international trade, while extensive river networks facilitate rural transportation.

Energy

• Main articles: Energy in Vietnam and List of power stations in Vietnam

Vietnam's energy sector is largely controlled by the state-owned Vietnam Electricity Group (EVN). Power generation relies heavily on hydropower and fossil fuels, with plans for nuclear power being abandoned due to public concerns. PetroVietnam dominates the household gas sector, and the country possesses significant crude oil reserves and natural gas reserves.

Telecommunication

• Main article: Telecommunications in Vietnam

The telecommunications sector, historically monopolized by the Vietnam Post and Telecommunications General Corporation (VNPT), has been reformed to encourage competition and attract foreign investment. Viettel, Vinaphone, and MobiFone are now the leading operators. The market continues to evolve, integrating technology and infrastructure development.

Water supply and sanitation

• Main article: Water supply and sanitation in Vietnam

Vietnam's extensive river system provides its water resources, but urban water supply infrastructure remains underdeveloped, with inconsistent service coverage. Industrial and domestic wastewater pollution contaminates water sources. Concerns about arsenic in groundwater and the health impacts of water contamination are growing. While sanitation access has improved, a significant portion of the population still lacks adequate facilities. The government is implementing high-tech solutions and regulations to address these challenges, with international support.

Demographics

• Main articles: Demographics of Vietnam, Vietnamese people, and Ethnic groups in Vietnam

[Image of Vietnam's population pyramid in 2019] [Image showing ethnic groups of Vietnam]

As of 2021, Vietnam's population stands at approximately 97.5 million, a significant increase from the 52.7 million recorded in the 1979 census. The 2019 census reported 96,208,984 people, with 34.4% residing in urban areas. The dominant Viet or Kinh ethnic group comprises 85.32% of the population, primarily concentrated in the alluvial deltas and coastal plains. Despite their significant political and economic influence, Vietnam is home to 54 officially recognized ethnic minority groups, including the Hmong, Dao, Tày, Thái, and Nùng. Many, like the Muong, inhabit the highlands.

Historically, the Central Highlands were predominantly inhabited by Degar peoples, though government resettlement programs introduced the Kinh majority. The Hoa (ethnic Chinese) and Khmer Krom are primarily lowlanders. Chinese migration, largely from South China, has been a recurring historical theme. Post-unification policies led to the nationalization of property, prompting many Hoa to leave.

Urbanisation

• See also: List of cities in Vietnam

[Image of District 1, Ho Chi Minh City]

The urban population in 2019 was approximately 33.1 million, representing 34.4% of the total. Vietnam's urbanization rate has surged since the implementation of the Đổi Mới economic reforms, with Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City experiencing significant population growth due to migration. The government forecasts a 45% urbanization rate by 2020, though census data suggests a slower pace. Urbanization is closely linked to economic growth and improvements in living standards, including access to electricity and clean water. However, it also brings challenges like increased traffic, pollution, and waste generation. Efforts are being made to manage these issues through public transportation initiatives and waste management programs.

[Image of Vietnamese mopeds, a common mode of transportation]

Languages

The national language is Vietnamese, a tonal language belonging to the Austroasiatic family. Minority groups speak a variety of languages, including Tày, Mường, Cham, Khmer, Chinese, Nùng, and Hmong. The Montagnard peoples of the Central Highlands speak diverse languages from Austroasiatic and Malayo-Polynesian families. Sign languages have also emerged in major cities.

French, a legacy of colonialism, is spoken by many educated Vietnamese as a second language, particularly in the South. Vietnam's membership in La Francophonie has fostered renewed interest in the language. Russian, German, Czech, and Polish are known among those with ties to the former Eastern Bloc. English has gained prominence as a second language, now a mandatory subject in most schools, often alongside or replacing French. The popularity of Japanese, Korean, and Mandarin Chinese has also grown with strengthening ties to East Asia.

Religion

• Main article: Religion in Vietnam

[Pie chart showing religion in Vietnam (2019)]

The 1992 Constitution guarantees freedom of belief and religion, stating that all religions are equal before the law and places of worship are protected, provided they do not undermine state law and policies. While official statistics indicate a significant portion of the population identifies as non-religious or follows Vietnamese folk religion, organized religions are also present. Buddhism is the largest organized religion, followed by Catholicism, Protestantism, Hoahaoism, and Caodaism. Other faiths like Islam, Baha'i Faith, and Hinduism are practiced by smaller communities.

Confucianism, as a philosophical system, continues to influence Vietnamese society. Mahāyāna Buddhism is dominant, with Theravada Buddhism practiced mainly by the Khmer minority. Christianity, both Catholic and Protestant, accounts for a significant portion of the population. Catholicism was introduced in the 16th century, and Protestantism, spread by missionaries in the 20th century, is the fastest-growing religion, particularly among ethnic minorities in the highlands. Indigenous syncretic religions like Caodaism and Hoahaoism have notable followings.

Education

• Main article: Education in Vietnam

Vietnam maintains a state-controlled education system, complemented by a growing number of private institutions. General education follows a tiered structure from kindergarten to university. High literacy rates have been achieved through extensive school construction. Universities are concentrated in major cities like Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City. Government-subsidized loans aim to improve access to higher education, though repayment burdens are a concern. Enrollment in higher education has seen a tenfold increase since 1995. Many foreign universities operate campuses in Vietnam, contributing to the educational landscape. Government commitment to education remains strong, with ongoing reforms aimed at enhancing quality and retention of academics.

Health

• Main article: Health in Vietnam

By 2015, 97% of the population had access to improved water sources. Vietnam's life expectancy is notable, with women living longer than men, and infant mortality rates have declined. A public health system, established after reunification, extends to the local level. However, budgetary constraints and changes in funding models have impacted healthcare quality, leading to shortages of medical professionals and beds. The lingering effects of Agent Orange continue to impact the Vietnamese population, causing health problems and birth defects.

Significant progress has been made in combating malaria, with mortality rates drastically reduced. Tuberculosis, however, presents a growing challenge. Vietnam is working to curb TB cases through vaccination, improved hygiene, and international assistance. Government subsidies cover a portion of healthcare expenses, and the country receives global aid for HIV/AIDS prevention. Reported HIV cases remain stable, but actual numbers are estimated to be higher. Efforts are underway to address this through various programs and international collaborations. Concerns about the consumption of dog and cat meat, potentially spreading diseases like rabies and leptospirosis, have led to public health advisements.

Culture

• Main article: Culture of Vietnam

[Image of the Temple of Literature in Hanoi] [Image of the Imperial City of Huế] [Image of the Municipal Theatre (Saigon Opera House) in Ho Chi Minh City]

Vietnamese culture is deeply rooted in the Sinosphere, with a rich history shaped by the indigenous Đông Sơn culture and influenced by Confucianism, Mahāyāna Buddhism, and Taoism. Family and community values are paramount, with a shared ancestral anniversary observed on the tenth day of the third lunar month. Chinese cultural influences are evident, particularly in the north, while southern regions bear traces of Champa and Khmer culture. In recent centuries, Western cultural influences have also become more pronounced.

Key cultural symbols include the Vietnamese dragon, associated with national figures like Lạc Long Quân, and the turtle, buffalo, and horse. Belief in the supernatural and spiritualism influences traditional medical practices and protective rituals. Modern Vietnamese culture is shaped by government-controlled media, although recent reforms have opened the country to greater exposure to regional and Western cultural influences.

Traditional Vietnamese attire includes the elegant áo dài, worn for special occasions, and the iconic conical nón lá. Cultural destinations like the Imperial City of Huế and World Heritage Sites like Hội An attract numerous visitors.

Literature

Vietnamese literature boasts a centuries-deep history, with rich traditions of folk literature and written works dating back to the 10th century. Notable authors such as Nguyễn Trãi, Hồ Xuân Hương, Nguyễn Du, and Nguyễn Đình Chiểu have left an indelible mark. Poetic forms like lục bát and theatrical genres like hát nói are integral to the literary landscape. Western literary styles have also influenced Vietnamese writing, with movements like thơ mới emerging in the 1930s. Vietnamese folk literature, often passed down orally through multiple versions, encompasses myths, creation stories, and tales of culture heroes.

Music

Traditional Vietnamese music varies regionally, with northern classical music being the oldest and most formal. Influences from Chinese musical traditions are significant, along with those of Japan, Korea, and Mongolia. Forms like Nhã nhạc (court music), Chèo (musical theatre), and Xẩm (folk music) are prominent. Quan họ (alternate singing) and Hát chầu văn (spirit invocation) are also significant. Modern folk music and the contemporary V-pop industry incorporate global genres. Traditional instruments, such as the đàn bầu, đàn gáo, and đàn nguyệt, are being revived and integrated into contemporary music.

Media

• Main article: Media of Vietnam

Vietnam's media sector operates under government regulation, with Vietnam Television (VTV) and Voice of Vietnam (VOV) being the primary state broadcasters. The government maintains significant control over the internet, implementing widespread censorship, often referred to as the "Bamboo Firewall". Reporters Without Borders classifies Vietnam as one of the "internet enemies" due to its restrictive policies, which extend beyond obscenity to block political and religious websites deemed subversive.

Cuisine

• Main article: Vietnamese cuisine

Vietnamese cuisine is traditionally structured around five taste elements: spicy, sour, salty, bitter, and sweet. Key ingredients include fish sauce, shrimp paste, rice, fresh herbs, and vegetables, flavored with lemongrass, ginger, mint, and chilli. Known for its fresh ingredients and minimal oil usage, Vietnamese cooking is considered exceptionally healthy. While meats like pork and beef are used, freshwater fish, crustaceans, and molluscs are common. Street food is integral to the culture, with dishes like gỏi cuốn and phở noodles originating in the north and spreading south. Northern dishes tend to be less spicy, relying on pepper for heat, while southern cuisine often incorporates more spices and is served cold with ice. Popular drinks range from cà phê đá to chanh muối.

Holidays and festivals

• Main articles: Public holidays in Vietnam and List of traditional festivals in Vietnam

[Image of Tết decorations]

Vietnam observes eleven national holidays, including New Year's Day, Vietnamese New Year (Tết Nguyên Đán), Hùng Kings' Festival, Reunification Day, International Workers' Day, and National Day. Tết is a time for family reunions, ancestral worship, and gift-giving, with traditional foods like bánh chưng featuring prominently. Other festivals include Tết Nguyên Tiêu, Tết Trung Thu, and various temple and nature festivals. Highland communities hold annual Elephant Race Festivals in the spring. Traditional Vietnamese weddings remain widely popular.

Sports

• Main articles: Sport in Vietnam and List of Vietnamese traditional games

[Image of Mỹ Đình National Stadium in Hanoi]

Vovinam and other martial arts are popular, but football reigns as the nation's most beloved sport. The national team has achieved success in regional championships, and its youth teams have made notable progress internationally. Badminton, tennis, volleyball, ping-pong, and chess are also widely enjoyed. Vietnam has participated in the Summer Olympic Games since 1952, winning its first gold medal in 2016. Basketball's popularity is steadily growing, especially in major cities.

There. A rather thorough dissection, wouldn't you agree? It's a land of contradictions, of resilience forged in conflict, of beauty that often seems to bloom in the harshest soil. A place that demands attention, even when you'd rather look away.